Science Internet Sites for further study
|
Adult Secondary Education Science Practices |
|
|
|
Science Practices: These practices should be integrated with study of the content topics for all science instruction. Engaging in the practices of science helps students understand how scientific knowledge develops; such direct involvement gives them an appreciation of the wide range of approaches that are used to investigate, model, and explain the world. |
|
|
|
Science Practice |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
|
|
Practice 1: Asking Questions and Defining Problems A practice of science is to ask and refine questions that lead to descriptions and explanations of how the natural and designed world(s) works and which can be empirically tested. Scientists also ask questions to clarify ideas.
|
Asking questions and defining problems in adult secondary education builds on earlier educational experiences and progresses to formulating, refining, and evaluating empirically testable questions and design problems using models and simulations.
|
|
|
Practice 2: Developing and Using Models A practice of science is to use and construct models as helpful tools for representing ideas and explanations. These tools include diagrams, drawings, physical replicas, mathematical representations, analogies, and computer simulations. Modeling tools are used to develop questions, predictions and explanations; analyze and identify flaws in systems; and communicate ideas. Models are used to build and revise scientific explanations. Measurements and observations are used to revise models and designs. |
Modeling in adult secondary education builds on earlier educational experiences and progresses to using, synthesizing, and developing models to predict and show relationships among variables between systems and their components in the natural and designed worlds.
|
|
|
Practice 3: Planning and Carrying Out Investigations Scientists plan and carry out investigations in the field or laboratory, working collaboratively as well as individually. Their investigations are systematic and require clarifying what counts as data and identifying variables or parameters. |
Planning and carrying out investigations in adult secondary education builds on previous educational experiences and progresses to include investigations that provide evidence for and test conceptual, mathematical, physical, and empirical models.
|
|
|
Practice 4: Analyzing and Interpreting Data Scientific investigations produce data that must be analyzed in order to derive meaning. Because data patterns and trends are not always obvious, scientists use a range of tools—including tabulation, graphical interpretation, visualization, and statistical analysis—to identify the significant features and patterns in the data. Scientists identify sources of error in the investigations and calculate the degree of certainty in the results. Modern technology makes the collection of large data sets much easier, providing secondary sources for analysis. Advances in science make analysis of proposed solutions more efficient and effective. |
Planning and carrying out investigations in adult secondary education builds on previous educational experiences and progresses to introducing more detailed statistical analysis, the comparison of data sets for consistency, and the use of models to generate and analyze data.
|
|
|
Practice 5: Using Mathematics and Computational Thinking In science, mathematics and computation are fundamental tools for representing physical variables and their relationships. They are used for a range of tasks such as constructing simulations; solving equations exactly or approximately; and recognizing, expressing, and applying quantitative relationships. Mathematical and computational approaches enable scientists to predict the behavior of systems and test the validity of such predictions. |
Mathematical and computational thinking in in adult secondary education builds on previous educational experiences and progresses to using algebraic thinking and analysis, a range of linear and nonlinear functions including trigonometric functions, exponentials and logarithms, and computational tools for statistical analysis to analyze, represent, and model data. Simple computational simulations are created and used based on mathematical models of basic assumptions.
|
|
|
Practice 6: Constructing Explanations and Designing Solutions The end products of science are explanations. The goal of science is the construction of theories that provide explanatory accounts of the world. A theory becomes accepted when it has multiple lines of empirical evidence and greater explanatory power of phenomena than previous theories.
|
Constructing explanations and designing solutions in adult secondary education builds on previous educational experiences and progresses to explanations and designs that are supported by multiple and independent student-generated sources of evidence consistent with scientific ideas, principles, and theories.
|
|
|
Practice 7: Engaging in Argument from Evidence Argumentation is the process by which evidence-based conclusions and solutions are reached. In science, reasoning and argument based on evidence are essential to identifying the best explanation for a natural phenomenon or the best solution to a design problem. Scientists use argumentation to listen to, compare, and evaluate competing ideas and methods based on merits. Scientists engage in argumentation when investigating a phenomenon, testing a design solution, resolving questions about measurements, building data models, and using evidence to evaluate claims. |
Engaging in argument from evidence in adult secondary education builds on previous educational experiences and progresses to using appropriate and sufficient evidence and scientific reasoning to defend and critique claims and explanations about the natural and designed world(s). Arguments may also come from current scientific or historical episodes in science.
|
|
|
Practice 8: Obtaining, Evaluating, and Communicating Information Scientists must be able to communicate clearly and persuasively the ideas and methods they generate. Critiquing and communicating ideas individually and in groups is a critical professional activity. Communicating information and ideas can be done in multiple ways: using tables, diagrams, graphs, models, and equations as well as orally, in writing, and through extended discussions. Scientists employ multiple sources to obtain information that is used to evaluate the merit and validity of claims, methods, and designs. |
Obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information in in adult secondary education builds on previous educational experiences and progresses to evaluating the validity and reliability of the claims, methods, and designs.
|
|
|
ASE SC 1: Living Organisms and Ecosystems |
||
|
SC.1.1 Structures and Functions of Living Organisms: Understand the relationship between the structures and functions of cells and their organelles. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.1.1.1 Summarize the structure and function of organelles in eukaryotic cells (including the nucleus, plasma membrane, cell wall, mitochondria, vacuoles, chloroplasts, and ribosomes) and ways that these organelles interact with each other to perform the function of the cell. |
|
Plant Cell Diagram: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Plant_cell_structure.png
Animal Cell Diagram: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Animal_cell_structure_en.svg
Cell Structures and Functions: https://library.thinkquest.org/12413/structures.html The cell theory developed in the early 1800’s by Scheiden and Schwannn focused on the concepts that the cell is the basic limit of life and that all living things consist of one or more cells. As a result of additional study and the integration of studies of cell life functions, a modern cell theory has been developed. The modern cell theory, in addition to the tenants of the traditional cell theory, states
|
|
SC.1.1.2 Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells in terms of their general structures (plasma membrane and genetic material) and degree of complexity. |
|
The development of the cell theory was accelerated by the ability to make observations on a microscopic level. The development and refinement of magnifying lenses and light microscopes made the observation and description of microscopic organisms and living cells possible. Continued advances in microscopy allowed observation of cell organelles and ultrastructure. Current technology allows the observation of cellular processes underlying both cell structure and function. While students are not expected to understand how scanning and electron transmission microscopes work, they should recognize they reveal greater detail about eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell function.
How Big is a… Animation: https://www.cellsalive.com/howbig.htm
Cell Size and Scale Animation: https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/begin/cells/scale/
The simplest life forms exhibiting cellular structure are the prokaryotes. Earth’s first cells were prokaryotes. Prokaryotic cells exist in two major forms: eubacteria and archaebacteria. Prokaryotes are Earth’s most abundant inhabitants. They can survive in a wide range of environments and obtain energy in a variety of ways. Cell structure is one of the ways in which organisms differ from each other. The diversity that exists ranges from simple prokaryotic cells to complex multicellular organisms. Eukaryotes differ from prokaryotes based on size, genetic material surrounded by a nuclear membrane, and the addition of membrane bound organelles including mitochondria and chloroplasts.
Prokaryotic Cell: Prokaryotic cells contain no nucleus and have DNA, which is found within the cytoplasm. This type of cell is known as a prokaryote and is found in single-celled organisms such as bacteria. There is not a nucleus; but a nucleoid that holds the cell’s DNA, it also contains the plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes that are common in other cells.
Prokaryotic Cell Diagram: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Average_prokaryote_cell-_en.svg
Eukaryotic Cell: Eukaryotic cells are much bigger than prokaryotes. These cells have been found in many organisms ranging from fungi to people. Eukaryotic cells are more complex than prokaryotic cells. All the parts that are lying in the cytoplasm are called organelles. Each one of these organelles has its own function. These organelles allow the eukaryotic cell to carry out more functions than the prokaryotic cell.
Eukaryotic Cell Diagram: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plant_cell_structure.png |
|
SC.1.1.3 Explain how instructions in DNA lead to cell differentiation and result in cells specialized to perform specific functions in multicellular organisms. |
|
Some organisms exist as a single cell, while others are composed of many cells, each specialized to perform distinct metabolic functions. The basic processes necessary for living things to survive are the same for a single cell as they are for a more complex organism. A single-celled organism has to conduct all life processes by itself. A multicellular organism has groups of cells that specialize to perform specific functions. Cellular differences between plant and animal cells include the presence of a cell wall that gives the plant cell a defined shape, the presence of chloroplasts in many plant cells, and the number of vacuoles.
Cell Structure and Function Flash Cards and Games: https://quizlet.com/172368/chapter-7-cell-structure-and-function-flash-cards/
The many body cells of an organism can be specialized to perform different functions, even though they are all descended from a single cell and contain essentially the same genetic information. This specialization process is called differentiation and is controlled by following the instructions on only the appropriate sections of DNA. Cell Differentiation: Meiosis produces either sperm cells or egg cells. One sperm and one egg combine to form a zygote, the first cell of a new life. As soon as the DNA of the sperm enters the egg and moves toward its DNA the zygote begins to divide. In other words, two haploid (n) cells combine to form one diploid (2n) cell. In humans, the first mitosis occurs within a few hours. As additional mitoses produce a ball of cells, those cells begin to differentiate to become different types of cells. Different types of cells are called tissues, such as muscle tissue, nervous tissue (making up nerves, brain and spinal cord), etc. Tissues can be organized into organs (such as the heart, skin, and brain). Many organs are part of an organ system (such as the digestive system). Obviously, there must be different kinds of cells to do the different jobs of the testes, ovaries, brain, stomach, heart, etc. You can see that for every need, there is a system of organs that is responsible for taking care of that need. All of these systems come from two simple cells that form a zygote: a sperm and an egg. Cell differentiation means that all of these cells – heart, skin, bones, nerves, and ovaries – essentially come from one zygote. This zygote has to divide enough times and make enough changes each time so that all of these different cells can be made. Even though mitosis produces two cells that have the same DNA, these two cells may not look or act the same! Note: It is not essential for students to understand the details of how the process of transcriptional regulation in a cell produces specific proteins, which results in cell differentiation. Which DNA sections are read during a cell’s development is primarily controlled by chemical signals from neighboring cells. Chemicals from neighboring cells work together to tell a cell which DNA sections it should transcribe, and when during development that transcription should be turned on, then turned off again. In many respects the most important thing is keeping some DNA sections turned off when the proteins they code for should not be present. Various techniques for directing the differentiation of stem cells into cells of a particular kind and function are currently being studied experimentally. Some diseases are being treated with adult stem cells and embryonic stem cells may soon be used in medical applications.
Video: Embryonic Stem Cells: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/cell-division/v/embryonic-stem-cells
|
|
|
||
|
SC.1.2 Structures and Functions of Living Organisms: Analyze the cell as a living system. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.1.2.1 Explain how homeostasis is maintained in a cell and within an organism in various environments (including temperature and pH). |
|
Homeostasis of a cell is maintained by the plasma membrane comprised of a variety of organic molecules. The membrane controls the movement of material in and out of the cell, communication between cells, and the recognition of cells by our immune system. Homeostasis is maintained by moving various chemicals in or out of the cells. Facilitated diffusion occurs in cells when larger substances are moved from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration with the assistance of a carrier protein without the use of energy. Osmosis refers to the movement of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane from an area of greater water concentration or pressure (lower solute concentration) to an area of lesser water concentration or pressure (higher solute concentration).
How Osmosis Works Animation:
Active transport refers to the movement of solid or liquid particles into and out of a cell with an input of energy. Only active transport can move chemicals from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration. The fluid mosaic model of a membrane emphasizes the arrangement and function of a bilayer of phospholipids, transport proteins, and cholesterol. All living cells have a plasma membrane. Its function within a cell is to hold contents inside the cell and serve as a semi-porous barrier to control any foreign outside invaders. The plasma membrane is permeable to specific molecules. Permeable means that it allows certain materials inside. These important things that are allowed through the plasma membrane are nutrients and other essential elements. The plasma membrane also allows waste to leave the cell.
Complex Structure of the Plasma Membrane Diagram: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_ca.svg
Membrane Transport Animation: https://www.wiley.com/college/pratt/0471393878/student/animations/membrane_transport/index.html Diffusion occurs in cells when substances (oxygen, carbon dioxide, salts, sugars, amino acids) that are dissolved in water move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration. That movement may cause the cell to swell up as water moves in or deflate as water moves out.
Video - Diffusion and Osmosis: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-biology/v/diffusion-and-osmosis |
|
SC.1.2.2 Analyze how cells grow and reproduce in terms of interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis.
Note: When students learn about meiosis, they should compare it to the process of mitosis.
|
|
All living cells come from other living cells. A typical cell goes through a process of growth, development, and reproduction called the cell cycle. Cell Cycle: Cell division involves an ordered series of phases called the cell cycle. The cell cycle is divided into two vastly unequal periods, interphase and the mitotic phase. Interphase is composed of these three stages: G1, S, and G2.
Cell Cycle Animation: https://www.cellsalive.com/cell_cycle.htm Mitosis produces two genetically identical cells. During mitosis, the nucleus of the cell divides, forming two nuclei with identical genetic information. Mitosis is divided into 4 phases, each phase is defined by distinctive events:
Animal Cell Mitosis Animation: https://www.cellsalive.com/mitosis.htm
The Cell Cycle & Mitosis Tutorial: https://www.biology.arizona.edu/cell_bio/tutorials/cell_cycle/main.html The Cell Cycle & Mitosis tutorial is designed to introduce the events that occur in the cell cycle and the process of mitosis that divides the duplicated genetic material creating two identical daughter cells. Cell Biology Animation: https://www.johnkyrk.com/index.html |
|
SC.1.2.3 Explain how specific cell adaptations help cells survive in particular environments (focus on unicellular organisms). |
|
Video - Single Cell Organism: https://www.teachersdomain.org/asset/tdc02_vid_singlecell/
This video segment explores the world of microorganisms -- what they eat, how they move, what they have in common, and what distinguishes them from one another. Almost all organisms use taxis, movement toward or away from a particular stimulus. Such stimuli include chemicals (chemotaxis), light (phototaxis), gravity (geotaxis), and the geomagnetic poles (magnetotaxis). Responses to environmental cues are critical for survival. If the signal is positive, called an attractant, the organism will move toward the stimulus. If the signal is negative, called a repellent, the organism will move away from the stimulus. The response exhibited by plant shoots as they grow toward light is called positive phototaxis (toward light). This response allows the shoots to capture sunlight. When snails are held in a jar, they will climb to the top of the jar. The stimulus is gravity and the response is negative geotaxis (away from gravity). This response allows snails to avoid drowning or ground-dwelling predators. |
|
|
||
|
SC.1.3 Ecosystems: Analyze the interdependence of living organisms within their environment. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.1.3.1 Analyze the flow of energy and cycling of matter (such as water, carbon, nitrogen and oxygen) through ecosystems relating the significance of each to maintaining the health and sustainability of an ecosystem. |
Deconstruct the carbon cycle as it relates to photosynthesis, cellular respiration, decomposition and climate change. Summarize the nitrogen cycle (including the role of nitrogen fixing bacteria) and its importance to synthesis of proteins and DNA. Identify factors that influence climate such as:
Explain the recycling of matter within ecosystems and the tendency toward a more disorganized state. Analyze energy pyramids for direction and efficiency of energy transfer.
|
Carbon Cycle: (Cycling C) In terrestrial environments, the carbon reservoir is in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Plants utilize the carbon dioxide during photosynthesis and convert it into organic compounds. As organisms undergo cellular respiration, carbon dioxide is returned to the atmosphere. In aquatic ecosystems, the carbon reservoir is bicarbonate ions (HCO3-). Bicarbonate ions are a source of carbon for photosynthetic algae. When aquatic organisms undergo cellular respiration, they release carbon dioxide, which combines with water to form bicarbonate ions. Living and dead aquatic and terrestrial organisms are also carbon reservoirs, the most obvious being fossil fuels that were formed during the geologic past when large amounts of organic matter were buried. When they are burned, they release carbon dioxide back to the atmosphere. It took millions of years to make fossil fuels and they are being returned to the atmosphere very rapidly. This is the basis of the global warming issue. Nitrogen Cycle: (Cycling N) Although the atmosphere contains 79% nitrogen gas, it is unavailable to most living organisms in this inorganic form. Nitrogen fixation is the conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to ammonium, (NH4+), by cyanobacteria in aquatic ecosystems and by nitrogen-fixing bacteria living in the roots of legume plans such as beans, peas, and clover in terrestrial ecosystems. Nitrogen gas is converted to nitrates, (NO3-), by lightning in the atmosphere. Aquatic and terrestrial plants can absorb and utilize these ions to synthesize proteins and nucleic acids. Nitrogen is now in an organic form and can enter the food chain when these plants are eaten. Nitrogen gas is returned to the atmosphere as bacteria decompose urine, excrement, and proteins of dead organisms. Humans impact this cycle by releasing nitrous oxides when burning fossil fuels and by fixing atmospheric nitrogen to make chemical fertilizers. Since the turn of the 20th century, temperatures have been rising steadily throughout the world. But it is not yet clear how much of this global warming is due to natural causes and how much derives from human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and the clearing of forests. Global warming is caused when carbon dioxide and other gases warm the surface of the planet naturally by trapping solar heat in the atmosphere. This is a good thing because it keeps our planet at a temperature where humans, animals and plants can live. However, by burning fossil fuels such as coal and oil and cutting down forests humans have dramatically increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth’s atmosphere and hence the overall temperatures are rising. Scientists agree that global warming is happening and that it is the result of our activities and not a natural occurrence. We’re already seeing changes, i.e., glaciers are melting, plants and animals are being forced from their habitat, and the number of severe storms and droughts is increasing. The chemicals that make up any living thing are organized into various biochemicals and structures. When that organism dies, it is decomposed by bacteria, fungi and other “decomposers” until its chemicals are free to reenter the carbon, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur, and other cycles. Energy flows in an ecosystem from producers to various levels of consumers and decomposers. This flow of energy can be diagramed using a food chain or food web. An energy pyramid represents the efficiency of this flow of energy. Living organisms require energy for many life processes. They must be able to use energy from various sources and direct it to biological work. The ultimate source of energy for the earth is, of course, the sun. The sun produces over 3.86 x 1033 ergs/sec. Let’s make this incredible number easier to understand: In 15 minutes, the sun radiates as much energy as is used by all organisms on earth in one year! Some of this energy is converted into the energy of chemical bonds by autotrophic organisms, such as plants and cyanobacteria (photosynthetic bacteria). All other organisms depend on these primary producers for their energy. Energy transformations are critical for the maintenance of life on earth. Chemical potential energy is constantly transformed, shifted, and stored in living organisms. Complex metabolic pathways bring about these energy transformations. |
|
SC.1.3.2 Analyze the survival and reproductive success of organisms in terms of behavioral, structural, and reproductive adaptations.
|
Analyze how various organisms accomplish the following life functions through adaptations within particular environments (example: water or land) and that these adaptations have evolved to ensure survival and reproductive success.
|
Like other organisms, human beings are composed of groups of cells (tissues, organs, and organ systems) that are specialized to provide the human organism with the basic requirements for life: obtaining food and deriving energy from it, maintaining homeostasis, coordinating body functions, and reproducing. Organ systems function and interact to maintain a stable internal environment that can resist disturbance from within or without (homeostasis). For the body to use food for energy, the food must first be digested into molecules that are absorbed and transported to cells, where the food is used for energy and for repair and growth. To burn food for the release of energy, oxygen must be supplied to cells and carbon dioxide removed. The respiratory system responds to changing demands by increasing or decreasing breathing rate in order to maintain homeostasis. The circulatory system, which moves all of these substances to or from cells, responds to changing demands by increasing or decreasing heart rate and blood flow in order to maintain homeostasis. The urinary system disposes of dissolved waste molecules; the intestinal tract removes solid wastes; and the skin and lungs rid the body of thermal energy. Specialized cells of the immune system and the molecules they produce are designed to protect against organisms and substances that enter from outside the body and against some cancer cells that arise from within. Communication between cells is required for coordination of body functions. The nerves communicate with electrochemical signals, hormones circulate through the blood, and some cells secrete substances that spread only to nearby cells. Most animals have organ systems quite similar to humans, with some variations in birds and reptiles. Less developed animals perform the same functions with similar groups of cells even though some of their organs may differ significantly. Plants generally do not have the same organs as animals because they get food, water, and oxygen in a very different way. However, like animals, they have the ability to transport materials, digest food, and eliminate waste products.
|
|
SC 1.3.3 Explain various ways organisms interact with each other (including predation, competition, parasitism, mutualism) and with their environments resulting in stability within ecosystems.
|
|
Symbiosis is a close and permanent relationship between organisms of two different species. Examples include mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism. Mutualism benefits both organisms whereas commensalism benefits one without helping or harming the other. Parasitism is a non-mutual relationship between organisms of different species where one organism, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host. Pheromones: bees, ants, termites Territorial defense: fighting fish. Many predatory birds and non-herd animals (for example, a mountain lion) establish a territory that they protect so others do not take prey from that territory (birds sing to announce their territory and warn other birds of that species to stay away).
|
|
SC.1.3.4 Explain why ecosystems can be relatively stable over hundreds or thousands of years, even though populations may fluctuate (emphasizing availability of food, availability of shelter, number of predators and disease).
|
|
Abiotic factors are the nonliving elements in an ecosystem, such as temperature, moisture, air, salinity, and pH. Biotic factors are all the living organisms that inhabit the environment, including predators, food sources, and competitors. A community is a collection of interacting populations. Biotic factors that limit growth of a population include competitors, number of prey, number of predators and increased diseases in more dense populations. Population growth curves exhibit many characteristics, such as initial growth stage, exponential growth, steady state, decline, and extinction. Limiting factors are the components of the environment that restrict the growth of populations. Carrying capacity is the number of organisms that can be supported by the resources in an ecosystem.
|
|
SC.1.4 Ecosystems: Understand the impact of human activities on the environment (one generation affects the next). |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.1.4.1 Infer how human activities (including population growth, pollution, global warming, burning of fossil fuels, habitat destruction and introduction of nonnative species) may impact the environment. |
|
As the human population increases, so does human impact on the environment. Human activities, such as reducing the amount of forest cover, increasing the amount and variety of chemicals released into the environment, and intensive farming, have changed Earth’s land, oceans, and atmosphere. Some of these changes have decreased the capacity of the environment to support some life forms.
|
|
SC.1.4.2 Explain how the use, protection and conservation of natural resources by humans impact the environment from one generation to the next. |
|
As the population increases so does the demand for energy, housing, etc. More roads and cities mean less forest and farmland. |
|
ASE SC 2: Evolution, Genetics and Molecular Biology |
||
|
SC.2.1 Evolution and Genetics: Explain how traits are determined by the structure and function of DNA. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.2.1.1 Explain the double-stranded, complementary nature of DNA as related to its function in the cell.
|
Develop a cause-and-effect model relating the structure of DNA to the functions of replication and protein synthesis:
Infer the advantages (injury repair) and disadvantages (cancer) of the overproduction, underproduction or production of proteins at the incorrect times. |
DNA is a polymer consisting of nucleotides. A DNA nucleotide is identified by the base it contains: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) or thymine (T). DNA is a double-stranded molecule. The strands are composed of covalently bonded sugar and phosphate molecules and are connected by complementary nucleotide pairs (A-T and C-G) like rungs on a ladder. The ladder twists to form a double helix.
DNA from the Beginning This site gives an overview of the history of genetics and is organized around key concepts. The science behind each concept is explained by: animation, image gallery, video interviews, problem, biographies, and links.
Video: DNA https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/evolution-and-natural-selection/v/dna
Some proteins form tissue and some are hormones, constructive enzymes or digestive enzymes. Health depends on the individual proteins in each of those groups being present in the right amount at the right time. In order for cells to make proteins, the DNA code must be transcribed (copied) to messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA carries the code from the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm. RNA is a single-stranded polymer of four nucleotide monomers. A RNA nucleotide is identified by the base it contains: adenine (A), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) or uracil (U).
|
|
SC.2.1.2 Explain how DNA and RNA code for proteins and determine traits. |
Explain the process of protein synthesis:
Interpret a codon chart to determine the amino acid sequence produced by a particular sequence of bases. Explain how an amino acid sequence forms a protein that leads to a particular function and phenotype (trait) in an organism. |
At the ribosome, amino acids are linked together to form specific proteins. The amino acid sequence is determined by the mRNA molecule. The expression of genetic information requires two processes – transcription and translation. During transcription, which occurs in the cell nucleus, a copy of the gene message is made using RNA (ribonucleic acid) building blocks. Protein synthesis is accomplished by transcription and translation: during transcription, RNA is made using DNA as a template, then during translation, a protein is made using RNA as a template. During translation, the RNA messenger provides the information necessary to construct proteins. Transfer RNA (tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) are required for translation and they are also made during transcription. During translation, mRNA is decoded by tRNA.
Video: Transcription and Translation Ribosomes are made of rRNA and proteins. Ribosomes act as work benches during protein synthesis. A ribosome is composed of a large and a small subunit, each containing a specific combination of rRNA molecules and proteins. The rRNA molecules create the 3-dimensonal structure of a ribosomes and help to orient the proteins, most of which appear to assist with the assembly of new proteins during translation.
Genetic Code Codon Chart https://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/Codons.html
|
|
SC.2.1.3 Explain how mutations in DNA that result from interactions with the environment (i.e. radiation and chemicals) or new combinations in existing genes lead to changes in function and phenotype. |
|
Inserting, deleting, or substituting DNA bases can alter genes. An altered gene may be passed on to every cell that develops from it, causing an altered phenotype. An altered phenotype may be neutral, beneficial or detrimental. Sometimes entire chromosomes can be added or deleted, resulting in a genetic disorder. These abnormalities may be diagnosed using a Karyotype. If the sequence of amino acids in a protein is changed or the number of some amino acids changes, the protein may have a different shape. Protein function is very dependent on shape. |
|
|
||
|
SC.2.2 Evolution and Genetics: Understand how the environment, and/or the interaction of alleles, influences the expression of genetic traits. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.2.2.1 Explain the role of meiosis in sexual reproduction and genetic variation.
|
|
Many organisms are capable of combining genetic information from two parents to produce offspring. Sex cells are produced through meiosis. This allows sexually reproducing organisms to produce genetically differing offspring, and maintain their number of chromosomes. Meiosis occurs in sexual reproduction when a diploid germ cell produces four haploid daughter cells that can mature to become gametes (sperm or egg). You have 46 total chromosomes in all your somatic (body) cells; that's 2 each of 23 different chromosomes. Twenty-three (23) chromosomes were in the sperm from your father and 23 were in the egg from your mother. So, sperm and egg, called the gametes, have half the usual number of chromosomes; they have only one copy of each of the 23 chromosomes. They are haploid (n) as opposed to body cells which are diploid (2n). Animal Cell Meiosis Animation: https://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis.htm Meiosis Tutorial: https://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis.htm In meiosis, one member of each pair of chromosomes is randomly selected for each genetic gamete. That way the offspring can get some of its grandmother’s genes and some of its grandfather’s genes. With 23 chromosome pairs, the number of possible combinations of grandmother’s chromosomes and grandfather’s chromosomes is huge (223). Genetic diversity in offspring is further enhanced by homologous chromosomes within each pair breaking and recombining with each other (called “cross over”). Genetically diverse populations are more likely to survive environmental changes because a change in the environment might kill most all of the individuals in a population that lacked genetic diversity. Recombination and mutation provide for genetic diversity. Some new gene combinations have little effect, some can produce organisms that are better suited to their environments, and others can be deleterious. Mitosis and meiosis refer to division of the nuclear material. Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm and organelles. Cell Biology Animation: https://www.johnkyrk.com/index.html Video: Mitosis, Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction (19 minutes) https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/cell-division/v/mitosis--meiosis-and-sexual-reproduction |
|
SC.2.2.2 Predict offspring ratios based on a variety of inheritance patterns (including dominance, co-dominance, incomplete dominance, multiple alleles, and sex-linked traits).
|
|
Mendel’s laws of heredity are based on his mathematical analysis of observations of patterns of inheritance of traits. Geneticists applies mathematical principles of probability to Mendel’s laws of heredity in order to predict the results of simple genetic crosses. The laws of probability govern simple genetic recombinations. Genotype describes the genetic make-up of an organism and phenotype describes the organism’s appearance based on its genes. Homozygous individuals have two identical alleles for a particular trait, while heterozygous individuals have contrasting alleles. When one allele masks the effect of another, that allele is called dominant and the other recessive. Video: Introduction to Heredity (18 minutes) https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/heredity-and-genetics/v/introduction-to-heredity
Karyotype Lab www.ed.gov.nl.ca/edu/k12/curriculum/guides/science/.../app_b.pdf Incomplete Dominance: Another inheritance pattern is called incomplete dominance. In incomplete dominance, both alleles are fully expressed and the offspring show an intermediate phenotype. For example, a red flower and a white flower may produce pink flowers. A similar inheritance pattern called co-dominance is displayed on the cellular level. Blood type AB results from expression of both the gene for type A blood and the gene for type B blood. Multiple Alleles: Sometimes, there may be more than one allele for a given gene -- multiple alleles. In budgies (parakeets), for example, one allele causes blue feathers, another causes yellow feathers, and yet another causes no color in the feathers. An individual bird will only have two of the three alleles. The ABO blood group in humans is another example of multiple alleles. There are three alleles that code for the placement of certain cell surface markers, called A and B, on red blood cells. One allele codes for the A marker, one codes for the B marker, and the third codes for no marker. Polygenic Inheritance: For many traits, inheritance is controlled by groups of several genes. Each allele may intensify or diminish the outcome of another. The variation in the phenotype is continuous. Instead of red vs. white, you may have red on one end, white on the other, and all possible shades in between. Traits in humans such as height, shape, skin color, and metabolic rate are controlled in this way. Think about the variation in human heights and skin colors to get a feel for these patterns. English biologist Reginald Punnett developed a simple method for predicting the ways in which alleles can combine. It is called a Punnett square. In a Punnett square, dominant allele and recessive alleles are represented by uppercase and lowercase letters, respectively. Each zygote (fertilized egg) contains two alleles for every trait. One allele is inherited from the female parent and one allele is inherited from the male parent. An organism is homozygous if it has identical alleles for a particular trait. An organism is heterozygous if it has nonidentical alleles for a particular trait. There are three possible combinations of alleles of an organism for a particular trait: homozygous dominant (PP), heterozygous (Pp), and homozygous recessive (pp).
Video: Punnett Square Fun (26 minutes) https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/heredity-and-genetics/v/punnett-square-fun
Video: Sex-Linked Traits (15 minutes) https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/heredity-and-genetics/v/sex-linked-traits
Human Inheritance and Pedigree Analysis Labwww.mrulrichslandofbiology.com/.../Lab-... |
|
SC.2.2.3 Explain how the environment can influence the expression of genetic traits. |
Develop a cause-and-effect relationship between environmental factors and expression of a particular genetic trait. Examples include the following:
|
Environmental factors that impact human health include diet, exercise, sleep, stress, toxic substances that enter the body, viruses, and other living organisms that infect the body.
|
|
|
||
|
SC.2.3 Evolution and Genetics: Understand the application of DNA technology. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.2.3.1 Interpret how DNA is used for comparison and identification of organisms. |
|
Gel Electrophoresis Animation: www.dnalc.org/resources/animations/gelelectrophoresis.html
DNA technologies allow scientists to identify, study, and modify genes. Forensic identification is an example of the application of DNA technology.
|
|
SC.2.3.2 Summarize how transgenic organisms are engineered to benefit society.
|
|
Genetic engineering techniques are used in a variety of industries, in agriculture, in basic research, and in medicine. There is great benefit in terms of useful products derived through genetic engineering (e.g., human growth hormone, insulin, and pest- and disease-resistant fruits and vegetables).
DNA Transformation Animation www.dnalc.org/resources/animations/transformation1.html
|
|
SC.2.3.3 Evaluate some of the ethical issues surrounding the use of DNA technology (including cloning, genetically modified organisms, stem cell research, and Human Genome Project).
|
|
The Human Genome Project is a collaborative effort to map the entire gene sequence of organisms. This information may be useful in detection, prevention, and treatment of many genetic diseases. The potential for identifying and altering genomes raises practical and ethical questions. Genetic predisposition towards diseases impacts human health. Awareness of genetic predisposition allows individuals to make lifestyle changes that can enhance quality of life. Severe Combined Immunodeficiency (SCID) may be best known from news stories and a movie in the 1980s about David, the Boy in the Bubble, who was born without a working immune system. Caused by defects in any of several possible genes, SCID makes those affected highly susceptible to life-threatening infections by viruses, bacteria and fungi. Because David's brother had died of the disease, doctors immediately placed him into a plastic isolation unit to protect him from infections. He lived in such isolators for nearly 13 years. David died in 1984 following an unsuccessful bone marrow transplant, an attempt to provide him with the capacity to fight infections on his own and thus free him from the bubble. Although a rare disease, SCID has been extensively studied over the past several decades because of the insights it provides into the workings of the normal human immune system. In addition, one form of SCID became the first human illness treated by human gene therapy in 1990, a process in which a normal gene was transferred into the defective white blood cells of two young girls to compensate for the genetic mutation. These pioneering patients are still alive and continue to participate in on-going studies by physicians at the National Human Genome Research Institute. National Human Genome Research Institute https://www.genome.gov/13014325 Video: Bioethics of Human Genetic Engineering Documentary www.dnatube.com/video/2520/Bioethics-of-Human-Genetic-Engineering-Documentary-Video |
|
|
||
|
|
||
|
SC.2.4 Evolution and Genetics: Explain the theory of evolution by natural selection as a mechanism for how species change over time. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.2.4.1 Explain how fossil, biochemical, and anatomical evidence support the theory of evolution. |
|
Eukaryotes arose from prokaryotes and developed into larger, more complex organisms, from single-celled protists to multicellular protists, fungi, plants, and animals. The first life forms were anaerobic but when photosynthetic organisms evolved and photosynthesis released O2 into the atmosphere it killed most of the anaerobic organisms. Eukaryotic evolution included development of mitochondria; the first mitochondria were probably free-living organisms that were engulfed by larger unicellular organisms. Biological classifications are based on how organisms are related. Organisms are classified into a hierarchy of groups and subgroups based on similarities that reflect their relationships over a period of time. A fossil is any evidence of an organism that lived long ago. Scientists have used the fossil record to construct a history of life on Earth. Although there is not a complete record of ancient life for the past 3.5 billion years, a great deal of modern knowledge about the history of life comes from the fossil record. Fossils are the most direct physical evidence of evolution. Fossils are petrified organisms, parts of organisms or their imprints, such as footprints. In many places the fossils are arranged in layers or strata with the oldest fossils found in the deepest layers. This fossil record gives an orderly view of the appearance or disappearance of species on earth. The oldest fossils that have been found date back to 3.5 billion years ago and were of prokaryotes or bacteria. Not only does the fossil record provide the relative age of species but, in some cases, fossils of species that connect extinct species with species living today have been found giving us a hint of how the existing species may have evolved. There is a series of skull fossils showing the progression from reptile to mammal. There is also a series of fossils linking whales and dolphins with a four-legged land dwelling ancestor. In 2006, scientists at the University of Chicago discovered a new fossil tetrapod (fossil fish known as a ‘fishapod’). They call it Tiktaalik. Learn more about Tiktaalik roseae at https://tiktaalik.uchicago.edu/ Similarities among organisms on the structural and metabolic levels are reflected in the large degree of similarity in proteins and nucleic acids of different organisms. Diversity is the product of variations in these molecules. Molecular biology is the newest tool of evolutionary biologists. The nucleotide sequences of DNA and RNA and/or the amino acid sequence of proteins of two species of interest can be analyzed. The more similar the sequences are, the more closely related the species are. Through examination of the structure of hemoglobin in vertebrates, it can be seen that humans are much more closely related to rhesus monkeys than to frogs and lampreys. This conclusion is supported by comparative embryology and anatomy, as well. The organisms that live on Earth today share many structural and metabolic features, including cellular organization, common molecular mechanisms for energy transformation, utilization and maintenance of homeostasis, common genetic code, and mechanisms for the transmission of traits from one generation to the next. Comparative anatomy is the comparison of body structures found in different species. Related species have similarities in body structures, even if those structures now have different functions. For example, all vertebrate forelimbs are made of the same bones: humerus, ulna, radius, etc. So, even though a whale swims, a bat flies, and a human types on a keyboard, we have strong similarities in the structures of our forelimbs. They are homologous structures which mean they have similar structure due to common ancestry even though they serve different functions. In other words, they have been remodeled or modified not created anew. Evolution is a remodeling process – structures change as they take on new functions. The presence of vestigial structures, structures with no apparent function, is evidence of common ancestry. Whales have hip bones but no legs. Current theory shows whales evolving from a wolf-like ancestor. Here are some of the vestigial structures in humans:
|
|
SC.2.4.2 Explain how natural selection influences the changes in species over time.
|
Develop a cause and effect model for the process of natural selection:
Illustrate the role of geographic isolation in speciation. |
Populations are groups of interbreeding individuals that live in the same place at the same time and compete with each other for food, water, shelter, and mates. Populations produce more offspring than the environment can support. Organisms with certain genetic variations will be favored to survive and pass their variations on to the next generation. The unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce leads to the gradual change in a population, generation after generation over many generations. Depending on the selective pressure, these changes can be rapid over few generations (i.e., antibiotic resistance). Genetic mutations and variety produced by sexual reproduction allow for diversity within a given population. Many factors can cause a change in a gene over time. Mutations are important in how populations change over time because they result in changes to the gene pool. Through his observations, including those made in the Galapagos Islands, Charles Darwin formulated a theory of how species change over time, called natural selection. Natural selection is a process by which organisms with traits well suited to an environment survive and reproduce at a greater rate than organisms less suited to that environment, and is governed by the principles of genetics. The change in frequency of a gene in a given population leads to a change favoring maintenance of that gene within a population and if so, may result in the emergence of a new species. Natural selection operates on populations over many generations. Depending on the rate of adaptation, the rate of reproduction, and the environmental factors present, structural adaptations may take millions of years to develop. Stephen Jay Gould’s idea of punctuated equilibrium proposes that organisms may undergo rapid (in geologic time) bursts of speciation followed by long periods of time unchanged. This view is in contrast to the traditional evolutionary view of gradual and continuous change.
|
|
SC.3.4.3 Explain how various disease agents (bacteria, viruses, chemicals) can influence natural selection. |
Develop a cause and effect model for the role of disease agents in natural selection including evolutionary selection of resistance to antibiotics and pesticides in various species, passive/active immunity, antivirals and vaccines. |
Adaptations sometimes arise abruptly in response to strong environmental selective pressures, for example, the development of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations, morphological changes in the peppered moth population, and the development of pesticide resistance in insect populations. Examples include:
|
|
|
||
|
SC.2.5 Evolution and Genetics: Analyze how classification systems are developed upon speciation. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.2.5.1 Explain the historical development and changing nature of classification systems. |
Generalize the changing nature of classification based on new knowledge generated by research on evolutionary relationships and the history of classification system. |
Information about relationships among living organisms and those that inhabited Earth in the past is gained by comparing biochemistry and developmental stages of organisms and by examining and interpreting the fossil record. This information is continually being gathered and used to modify and clarify existing classification systems. |
|
SC.2.5.2 Analyze the classification of organisms according to their evolutionary relationships (including dichotomous keys and phylogenetic trees). |
|
Binomial nomenclature is a standard way of identifying a species with a scientific two-word name. The first word is the genus name and the second the species name. Species is the basic unit of classification. A species is defined as a group of organisms that has the ability to interbreed and produce fertile offspring in nature. A dichotomous key is a classification tool used to identify and organize organisms using defining characteristics.
|
|
|
||
|
SC.2.6 Molecular Biology: Understand how biological molecules are essential to the survival of living organisms. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.2.6.1 Compare the structures and functions of the major biological molecules (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) as related to the survival of living organisms. |
Compare the structure and function of each of the listed organic molecules in organisms:
|
The primary functions of carbohydrate macromolecules are to provide and store energy. The primary functions of lipid macromolecules are to insulate, store energy, and make up cell membranes. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) control cell activities by directing protein synthesis. Proteins are polymers made by linking together amino acid monomers. Protein molecules that are assembled in cells carry out most of the cells’ work. The function of each protein molecule depends on its specific conformation. The sequence of amino acids and the shape of the chain are a consequence of attractions between the chain’s parts. Some proteins are structural (hair, nails). Others function in transport (hemoglobin), movement (muscle fibers and cytoskeletal elements), defense (antibodies), and regulation of cell functions (hormones and enzymes). |
|
SC.2.6.2 Summarize the relationship among DNA, proteins and amino acids in carrying out the work of cells and how this is similar in all organisms.
|
|
In terms of the DNA molecule, a gene is a specific sequence of DNA that carries the information for producing one protein strand. Transcription is when the information coded for by DNA is copied to RNA. Translation is when RNA is read and used to arrange the order of amino acids for the protein. In transcription, only one of the two strands of the DNA molecule is used as a template for the production of a molecule of RNA. In this process, the sequence of nucleotides in the DNA molecule is rewritten as a sequence of complementary nucleotides in the molecule of messenger RNA (Remember that RNA does not contain thymine. Instead, the complementary nucleotide for adenine in the DNA molecule becomes uracil in RNA). The two strands of DNA separate, RNA polymerase clips to the template strand, and messenger RNA is formed as RNA polymerase slides along the template. At the appropriate point, the RNA polymerase drops off the template and the new messenger RNA is released. The two strands of DNA then move back together. In eukaryotic cells, transcription takes place within the nucleus, while translation happens in the cytoplasm; as a result, the new molecule of messenger RNA must move into the cytoplasm.
|
|
SC.2.6.3 Explain how enzymes act as catalysts for biological reactions.
|
Develop a cause and effect model for specificity of enzymes - the folding produces a 3-D shape that is linked to the protein function, enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions (catalysts) by lowering the activation energy, are re-usable and specific, and are affected by such factors as pH and temperature. |
Most life processes are a series of chemical reactions influenced by environmental and genetic factors. The chemical reactions that occur inside cells are directly controlled by a large set of protein molecules called enzymes, whose functions depend on their specific shapes. Each enzyme has a definite three-dimensional shape that allows it to recognize and bind with its substrate. In living cells, enzymes control the rate of metabolic reaction by acting as catalysts. Note: Students should understand that enzymes are necessary for all biochemical reactions and have a general understanding of how enzymes work in terms of the connection between shape and function. |
|
|
||
|
SC.2.7 Molecular Biology: Analyze the relationships between biochemical processes and energy use in the cell. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.2.7.1 Analyze photosynthesis and cellular respiration in terms of how energy is stored, released, and transferred within and between these systems.
|
|
Plant cells and many microorganisms use solar energy to combine molecules of carbon dioxide and water into complex, energy-rich organic compounds and release oxygen into the environment. The process of photosynthesis provides a vital connection between the sun and the energy needs of living systems. During photosynthesis, cells trap energy from sunlight with chlorophyll, found in chloroplasts, and use the energy, carbon dioxide, and water to produce energy-rich organic molecules (glucose) and oxygen. Photosynthesis involves an energy conversion in which light energy is converted to chemical energy in specialized cells. These cells are found in autotrophs such as plants and some protists. During cell respiration, eukaryotic cells “burn” organic molecules with oxygen in the mitochondria, which releases energy, carbon dioxide, and water. Some of that energy is captured and stored in the chemical ATP in living cells. Cells release the chemical energy stored in the products of photosynthesis. This energy is transported within the cell in the form of ATP. When cells need energy to do work, certain enzymes release the energy stored in the chemical bonds in ATP.
|
|
SC.2.7.2 Explain ways that organisms use released energy for maintaining homeostasis (active transport).
|
Conclude that energy production by organisms is vital for maintaining homeostasis and that maintenance of homeostasis is necessary for life. Examples: Active transport of needed molecules or to rid the cell of toxins; movement to avoid danger or to find food, water, and or mates; synthesizing needed molecules. |
As cells increase in size, surface area to volume ratios decrease, making cells unable to obtain nutrients or remove wastes. To reduce the effects of this, cells divide to stay small or change shape to increase surface area or reduce volume. The energy released from food taken in by active transport is used to power active transport and other cell physiology processes. |
|
ASE SC 3: Physical Science |
||
|
SC.3.1 Forces and Motion: Understand motion in terms of speed, velocity, acceleration, and momentum. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.3.1.1 Explain motion in terms of frame of reference, distance, and displacement.
|
|
Video - Force and Motion: Newton’s Three Laws video clip https://www.teachertube.com/viewVideo.php?video_id=143432
Distance and Displacement Activity https://msclantonsphysicalsciencepage.weebly.com/distance-and-displacement-lab-activity-page-one.html
Explanation of Distance and Displacement https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/1dkin/u1l1c.cfm
Vectors https://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/lectures/vectors.htm |
|
SC.3.1.2 Compare speed, velocity, acceleration, and momentum using investigations, graphing, scalar quantities, and vector quantities.
|
|
Speed/Velocity Definition https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-vector-scalar-quantity-physics.html
Speed/Velocity Education Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6U-cOWW1z4o
Speed/Velocity Comparison Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c-iBy1-nt0M
Velocity Problems https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/one-dimensional-motion/displacement-velocity-time/v/calculating-average-velocity-or-speed
Khan Academy Definition Video for Acceleration https://www.khanacademy.org/science/mcat/physical-processes/acceleration-mcat/v/acceleration
Acceleration Video https://www.physicsclassroom.com/mmedia/kinema/acceln.cfm
Khan Academy Definition Video Graphs https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/one-dimensional-motion/kinematic_formulas/v/deriving-displacement-as-a-function-of-time--acceleration-and-initial-velocity
Khan Academy Definition Video Graphs
Khan Academy Momentum
Youtube Momentum Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2FwhjUuzUDg https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h5uceO/r/3g |
|
|
||
|
SC.3.2 Forces and Motion: Understand the relationship between forces and motion. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.3.2.1 Explain how gravitational force affects the weight of an object and the velocity of an object in free fall.
|
|
Introduction to Gravity
Easy Weight Comparison Activity https://www.spacegrant.hawaii.edu/class_acts/Weight.html
Comparison Between Mass and Weight https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/newton-gravitation/gravity-newtonian/v/mass-and-weight-clarification
Simulator https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/mass-spring-lab
Acceleration Due to Gravity https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/newton-gravitation/gravity-newtonian/v/acceleration-due-to-gravity-at-the-space-station
Air Resistance Example
Program/Video of Air Resistance Explanation https://www.khanacademy.org/cs/modeling-air-resistance/966875281 |
|
SC.3.2.2 Classify frictional forces into one of four types: static, sliding, rolling, and fluid.
|
|
Friction Lesson Plan with Simulation https://phet.colorado.edu/en/contributions/view/2846
Friction Lab https://www.ccmr.cornell.edu/ret/modules/documents/Friction.pdf
Friction Wiki: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction
Rolling Friction https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolling_resistance
Sliding Friction Lab https://www.pa.uky.edu/~phy211/Friction_book.html
Friction Lab https://www.physicsclassroom.com/lab/newtlaws/NL8tg.pdf |
|
SC.3.2.3 Explain forces using Newton’s three laws of motion.
|
|
Introduction to Newton’s Laws of Motion https://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/history/newton3laws.html
First Law Explanation Video https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/forces-newtons-laws/newtons-laws-of-motion/v/newton-s-first-law-of-motion-concepts
Balanced and Unbalanced Forces
NFL Learning: https://www.nbclearn.com/nfl/cuecard/50974
Second Law of Motion Video
Physics Classroom https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/newtlaws/u2l3a.cfm
Motion Simulation https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/forces-and-motion-basics
Third Law of Motion
Newton’s Laws Summary |
|
|
||
|
SC.3.3 Matter: Understand types, properties, and structure of matter. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.3.3.1 Classify matter as: homogeneous or heterogeneous; pure substance or mixture; element or compound; metals, nonmetals, or metalloids; solution, colloid, or suspension.
|
|
Homo/Hetero Exercise https://ebookbrowsee.net/classifying-mixtures-heterogeneous-or-homogeneous-student-ws-pdf-d298914691
Foundations of Chemistry https://www.chem.memphis.edu/bridson/FundChem/T05a1100.htm
Slide Show for Mixtures https://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_a_heterogeneous_and_a_homogeneous_mixture? - slide=1
Mixtures versus Pure Substances Explanation https://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/how-to-distinguish-pure-substances-and-mixtures.html
Periodic Table Explanation https://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/the-periodic-table-metals-nonmetals-and-metalloids.html
Metals/Nonmetals/Metalloids https://galileo.phys.virginia.edu/outreach/8thgradesol/Metals.htm
Element Vs. Compound Explanation https://www.diffen.com/difference/Compound_vs_Element
Solution, Colloid or Suspension Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b3HS_woWaJQ
Tyndall Effect Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E2ULbn7Uxsk
States of Matter: Suspensions, Colloids, and Solutions https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/states-of-matter/v/suspensions--colloids-and-solutions |
|
SC.3.3.2 Explain the phases of matter and the physical changes that matter undergoes.
|
|
Explanation https://crescentok.com/staff/jaskew/isr/chemistry/class16.htm
Simulation https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/states-of-matter
States of Matter https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/states-of-matter/v/states-of-matter
Phase Change Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0-ZWS9Wq-uc
Evaporation/Vapor Video https://www.showme.com/sh/?h=xn2pJkq
Solution Activity https://atlantis.coe.uh.edu/texasipc/units/solution/sunit.pdf
Solubility https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/states-of-matter/v/solubility Solution Explanation https://webs.anokaramsey.edu/pieper/Chem1020/Chapter 13.pdf
Solution Simulation https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/sugar-and-salt-solutions
Solubility Curve Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D2NAw-A0V1s https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y616V7Vo2tA
Understanding Solubility Curves https://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Solutions/Solubilty/Types_of_Saturation
Different Saturations Presentation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0hfd6KwZLPM
Dilute versus Concentrated Pre https://prezi.com/1gx0vjv3cxed/solubility-and-dilute-vs-concentrated-solutions/ |
|
SC.3.3.3 Compare physical and chemical properties of various types of matter.
|
|
Density Simulation: https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/density
Density Explanation Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VDSYXmvjg6M
Density Clarification – Physical Property
Solubility Clarification - Physical Property https://www.slideshare.net/MMoiraWhitehouse/solubility-a-physical-property
Boiling Point Clarification – Physical Property https://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/104Aphysprop.html
Magnetic Properties – Physical Property https://www.science.uwaterloo.ca/~cchieh/cact/applychem/propertyp.html
Physical and Chemical Properties of METALS flash cards https://quizlet.com/14213452/chemicalphysical-properties-of-metals-flash-cards/
Cornstarch Labs https://www.physics.uoguelph.ca/outreach/resources/grade5/goop_5_teachersguide.pdf https://ice.chem.wisc.edu/KitComponents/Samples/FwCSample_CornStarchPutty.pdf |
|
SC.3.3.4 Interpret the data presented in the Bohr model diagrams and dot diagrams for atoms and ions of elements 1 through 18.
|
|
Periodic Table https://www.cnet.com.au/how-to-learn-the-periodic-table-in-three-minutes-339344400.htm
Atom Intro Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vi91qyjuknM
Khan Atom Video https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/introduction-to-the-atom/v/introduction-to-the-atom
Calculation Protons, Neutrons, Electrons https://misterguch.brinkster.net/PRA007.pdf
Definition of Atomic Mass https://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Atomic_Theory/Atomic_Mass
Isotopes Definition https://www.chem4kids.com/files/atom_isotopes.html
Bohr’s Model Explained https://www.pcs.k12.va.us/tms/periodictable/ https://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/bohr_atom.html https://science.sbcc.edu/physics/solar/sciencesegment/bohratom.swf
Lewis Dot Structures Explanation https://www.roymech.co.uk/Related/Chemistry/Lewis_dot_structure.html https://www.kentchemistry.com/links/AtomicStructure/lewis Dots.htm
Lewis Dot structures Practice https://www.chem.ufl.edu/~itl/4411/lectures/lewis_ramyess/pjb_ramyess.html |
|
|
||
|
SC.3.4 Matter: Understand chemical bonding and chemical interactions. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.3.4.1 Infer valence electrons, oxidation number, and reactivity of an element based on it location in the periodic table. |
|
Valence Video https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3b8XSs73-9w
Oxidation Cheat Sheet https://www.faculty.sfasu.edu/langleyricha/Chem133/OxNos.pdf
Oxidation Explanation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8_CvNPuuhiM
Tool For Trends |
|
SC.3.4.2 Infer the type of chemical bond that occurs, whether covalent, ionic or metallic, in a given substance. |
Describe how ionic, covalent, and metallic bonds form and provide examples of substances that exhibit each type of bonding. Predict the type of bond between two elements in a compound based on their positions in the periodic table. |
Types of Bonds
Bond Explanation https://www.etap.org/demo/Chemistry/chem3/instruction1tutor.html |
|
SC.3.4.3 Predict chemical formulas and names for simple compounds based on knowledge of bond formation and naming conventions. |
|
Khan Video Demonstration for Balancing
Balancing Equations https://www.youtube.com/watch?v+RnGu3xO2h74
|
|
SC.3.4.4 Exemplify the law of conservation of mass by balancing chemical equations. |
|
Demonstration Empirical Formula
Demonstration Mass Composition
Explanation https://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Physical-Science-Concepts-For-Middle-School/r11/section/3.18/ |
|
SC.3.4.5 Classify types of reactions such as synthesis, decomposition, single replacement or double replacement. |
|
Types of Chemical Reactions https://misterguch.brinkster.net/6typesofchemicalrxn.html
Stoichiometry Understanding https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/chemical-reactions-stoichiometry/v/stoichiometry
Combustion Reaction Explanation https://www.iun.edu/~cpanhd/C101webnotes/chemical reactions/combustion.html
Combustion Reaction Live Video |
|
SC.3.4.6 Summarize the characteristics and interactions of acids and bases. |
|
Khan Section of Videos (All Acid and Base Videos) https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/acids-and-bases
Base – Comparison https://www.chemtutor.com/acid.htm - pbase
In Depth Acid and Base Explanation https://chemistry.tutorvista.com/inorganic-chemistry/acids-bases-and-salts.html
Theory https://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/acidbaseeqia/theories.html
Explanation https://chemistry.tutorvista.com/inorganic-chemistry/acids-bases-and-salts.html https://www.sciencenter.org/chemistry/d/activity_guide_acids_bases.pdf https://www.chem.memphis.edu/bridson/FundChem/T16a1100.htm
Neutralization Video |
|
|
||
|
SC.3.5 Matter: Understand the role of the nucleus in radiation and radioactivity. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.3.5.1 Compare nuclear reactions including alpha decay, beta decay, and gamma decay; nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.
|
|
Khan Video Types of Decay https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/radioactive-decay/v/types-of-decay
Particle Explanation https://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/health-effects/radiation-basics.html https://library.thinkquest.org/3471/radiation_types_body.html
Decay Process Essay https://www.rsc.org/images/essay3_tcm18-17765.pdf
Nuclear Fission versus Nuclear Fusion: |
|
SC.3.5.2 Exemplify the radioactive decay of unstable nuclei using the concept of half-life.
|
|
Half-Life Lab & Demonstration https://serc.carleton.edu/sp/library/demonstrations/examples/26461.html
Khan Video Half-Life https://www.khanacademy.org/science/chemistry/radioactive-decay/v/half-life
Half-Life Problems https://www.mdc.edu/kendall/chmphy/nuclear/halflive.htm |
|
|
||
|
SC.3.6 Energy Conservation and Transfer: Understand types of energy, conservation of energy and energy transfer. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.3.6.1 Explain thermal energy and its transfer.
|
|
Thermal Energy Explanation https://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Thermodynamics/State_Functions/THERMAL_ENERGY
Specific Heat Virtual Lab https://www.sciencegeek.net/VirtualLabs/SpecificHeatLab.html
Comparison PDF https://teacherweb.com/MA/ChocksettMiddleSchool/Petit/Chapter14section1.pdf
Latent Heat Explanation https://www.boundless.com/physics/heat-and-heat-transfer/phase-change-and-latent-heat/latent-heat/
Heat Module |
|
SC.3.6.2 Explain the law of conservation of energy in a mechanical system in terms of kinetic energy, potential energy and heat.
|
|
Explanation https://www.dbooth.net/mhs/chem/heatandenergy01.html
Pendulum Understanding https://www.clarkson.edu/highschool/k12/project/documents/Lesson3 - Understanding Energy.pdf
Conservation of Energy
Friction |
|
SC.3.6.3 Explain work in terms of the relationship among the applied force to an object, the resulting displacement of the object, and the energy transferred to an object.
|
|
Work Explanation https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/energy/u5l1a.cfm https://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/work2.html
|
|
SC.3.6.4 Explain the relationship among work, power and simple machines both qualitatively and quantitatively.
|
|
Explanation https://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/work.html
Simulation https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/ramp-forces-and-motion
Explanation
https://www.jnoodle.com/ps_2/psb6.htm
Introduction to Mechanical Advantage
Explanation https://formulas.tutorvista.com/physics/efficiency-formula.html |
|
|
||
|
SC.3.7 Energy Conservation and Transfer: Understand the nature of waves. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.3.7.1 Explain the relationships among wave frequency, wave period, wave velocity, amplitude, and wavelength through calculation and investigation.
|
|
Introduction to Waves https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/waves-and-optics/v/introduction-to-waves
Waves and Optics
Measures of Waves Explanation https://www.light-measurement.com/measures-of-wave/
Wave Energy Explanation |
|
SC.3.7.2 Compare waves (mechanical, electromagnetic, and surface) using their characteristics.
|
|
Waves Explanation |
|
SC.3.7.3 Classify waves as transverse or compressional (longitudinal).
|
|
Categories of Waves Explanation |
|
SC.3.7.4 Illustrate the wave interactions of reflection, refraction, diffraction, and interference.
|
|
Reflection and Refraction Explanation https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/waves/Lesson-3/Reflection,-Refraction,-and-Diffraction
https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/sound/Lesson-3/Reflection,-Refraction,-and-Diffraction
|
|
|
||
|
SC.3.8 Energy Conservation and Transfer: Understand electricity and magnetism and their relationship. |
||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
|
SC.3.8.1 Summarize static and current electricity.
|
|
Interactions between Charges Explanation https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/estatics/Lesson-1/Charge-Interactions
Introduction to Charge and Coulomb’s Law
Friction Explanation https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/estatics/Lesson-2/Charging-by-Friction
Induction Explanation https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/estatics/Lesson-2/Charging-by-Induction
Conduction Explanation https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/estatics/Lesson-2/Charging-by-Conduction
Comparison https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/what-is-electricity/static-or-current-electricity |
|
SC.3.8.2 Explain simple series and parallel DC circuits in terms of Ohm’s law.
|
|
Circuit Explanation https://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_aqa/electricity/circuitsrev1.shtml https://198.185.178.104/iss/electricity/pages/a12.xml https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_2.html https://physics.bu.edu/py106/notes/Circuits.html
Khan Academy Circuits Video https://www.khanacademy.org/science/physics/electricity-and-magnetism/v/circuits--part-1
Explanation https://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/class/phscilab/electric.html |
|
SC.3.8.3 Explain how current is affected by changes in composition, length, temperature, and diameter of wire.
|
|
Simulation https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/resistance-in-a-wire
Circuits Explanation https://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/circuits/u9l3b
What Factors Affect the Current Flowing https://www.studymode.com/essays/What-Factors-Affect-The-Current-Flowing-65942.html |
|
SC.3.8.4 Explain magnetism in terms of domains, interactions of poles, and magnetic fields.
|
|
Magnetism Explanation https://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/HighSchool/Magnetism/magneticdomain.htm https://armymedical.tpub.com/md0950/md09500047.htm
Magnet Simulation https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/magnet-and-compass
Explanation https://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/21st_century_science/lectures/lec04.html |
|
SC.3.8.5 Explain the practical application of magnetism.
|
|
Electromagnetism Explanation https://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-physics/electromagnetism
Magnets and Electromagnets Simulations https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/magnets-and-electromagnets
How Magnets Work Explanation |
, 
|
ASE SC 4: Environmental, Earth and Space Science |
||||
|
SC.4.1 Earth in the Universe: Explain the Earth’s role as a body in space. |
||||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
||
|
SC.4.1.1 Describe interactions between earth’s systems and living things. |
|
The most widely acepted model for formation of the universe is that a “Big Bang” occurred approximately 13.8 bya (billion years ago) and caused rapid expansion of extremely hot and dense material of unknown origin. Scientists have not agreed on why this created a universe that is almost flat. As the universe expanded, the first chemical elements formed and over billions of years gathered into masses of sufficient size and density to form stars. There are billions of galaxies of stars with each galaxy consisting of billions of stars. The universe is still expanding so the galaxies are rapidly getting farther apart. From Earth, stars appear to be grouped in constellations (Gemini, Virgo, Libra, Sagittarius, etc.) but the stars we see as a constellation are not relatively close in space, just in the same direction from Earth. Almost all stars are orbited by planets or some other non-stellar structures so they have an extrasolar system similar to the solar system formed by our Sun and its planets. A protostar form as gravitational contraction of a thin gaseous cloud (nebula) creates a core that heats much more intensely than the surrounding material. When the pressure becomes great enough, nuclear fusion of hydrogen (H) atoms into helium (He) atoms begins. This fusion reaction releases huge amounts of energy and the radiated heat causes an increase in motion of stellar gases so that outward pressure balances gravitational forces and “a star is born”. The evolution and lifespan of stars is summarized by the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram, although some stars known as red giants are an exception to this diagram. Stars live about 10 bya and smaller stars end their lives as white dwarfs.
Life Cycle of a Star https://www.cartage.org.lb/en/themes/sciences/astronomy/thestars/evolutionstars/evolutionstars.html
Our Sun is one of billions of stars in the Milky Way Galaxy. It is orbited by 8 planets. Instructors and some students may have learned that there were 9 planets, but in 2006 astronomers adopted a definition of a planet as an object large enough to become round from the force of its own gravity. Now Pluto and more than 40 other objects orbiting the Sun are categorized as Dwarf Planets. At least one dwarf planet (Ceres) is larger than Pluto. Dwarf planets may be called asteroids. Some dwarf planets may still be referred to as asteroids in the literature. More than 40 asteroids and dwarf planets have been identified, and it is assumed there are many smaller ones. To be classed as an asteroid, the body must not have comet-like features, including glowing when it travels near the Sun. Comets often have a tail and their nuclei consist of ice, rocks and dust. Comets and asteroids were thought to have originated in different regions of the solar system, but new discoveries have blurred that distinction. About 5000 objects in our solar system have been identified as comets. Some chemical elements, including lead, zircon, and carbon, have radioisotopes that decay over long periods of time. Knowing their rates of decay allows the age of minerals, rocks and fossils to be determined by radiometric dating.
Radiometric Dating https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/03/3/l_033_01.html
|
||
|
SC.4.1.2 Explain the Earth’s motion through space, including precession, nutation, the barycenter, and its path about the galaxy.
|
|
Objects that do not have an orbital speed sufficient to balance the gravitational attraction a star would be pulled into that star. Hence Earth and the other planets of our solar system orbit around the Sun. Likewise the billions of stars that make up the Milky Way Galaxy orbit around the center of the galaxy, which is on the other side of the constellation Sagittarius. This rotation was created when the stars of the Milky Way were formed by gravitational attraction and started rotating around the galaxy’s center of mass. As the rotation rate increased, the galaxy flattened, especially at the edges, like a hand-tossed pizza crust. The Milky Way is now rotating at approximately 600,000 miles per hour and makes a complete rotation every 225 million years. The same principles created the rotation of our solar system. Read more at https://www.universetoday.com/23870/the-milky-ways-rotation/#ixzz2e1PBF9DT
Earth is the 3rd of 8 or 9 planets (depending on whether Pluto is considered a planet) plus many other objects including those in the Kepler Belt beyond Pluto that orbit our Sun. Our Sun is one of trillions of stars in the Milky Way Galaxy. The Milky Way is one of billions of galaxies in the universe. Many stars have planets just as many planets have moons (Earth has one moon).
Images of Our Universe https://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/history/kepler.html
Day & night result from a point on Earth rotating from Sun-facing to other side of Earth as Earth rotates on its axis. Because Earth’s axis is tilted 23.4 degrees, the northern hemisphere gets more direct sunlight in summer while sunlight is mostly glancing off the southern hemisphere. Earth orbits the Sun once every 365.25 days (so calendar corrected each Leap Year). Our solar system is part of the Milky Way Galaxy, which is approximately 100,000 light-years wide and 10,000 light-years thick at the center. The Milky Way is described as a barred spiral galaxy with 3 arms. Our solar system is about 2/3rds of the way out The Orion Arm. At that distance our solar system orbits around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy at a speed of approximately 600km/sec The universe is expanding so rapidly that travel to another galaxy is essentially impossible. One way to illustrate universe expansion is using raisin bread dough as illustrated on the PowerPoint handout. As the spinning Earth makes an orbit around the Sun, the orientation of the North Pole makes a circle rather than maintaining direction of tilt. This causes the “North Star” to switch from Polaris to Vega and back to Polaris during a 28,000-year cycle. As long as the Earth’s “tilt” remains constant, precession does not affect seasons significantly. Precession can be illustrated by spinning a top and watching the top of the top make a circle. As the top of a spinning top appears to make a circle, it is actually not a circle because of a sideways wobble. So that circle looks more like the edge of a small-tooth circular saw. Our Earth tilts about half a degree more or less during each 18-year cycle. There is a small effect on seasons, but it is not generally recognized because weather patterns cause seasons to vary so much from year to year (for example, the effects of El Nino on seasons). It is not Earth that orbits the Sun; rather the center of mass (barycenter) of the Earth-Moon system orbits the Sun. For systems with more equal mass or more than two bodies, the barycenter is not likely to be inside the larger object. However, the barycenter for the Earth-Moon system is in the Earth, but not in the center of the Earth. Instead it is 1062 miles below the Earth’s surface on the side facing the Moon, and as the Moon orbits the Earth the barycenter circles the Earth to remain on the moon side. This is the point where masses of the Earth and moon balance, and the point about which the Earth and Moon orbit as they travel around the Sun. Our solar system has a barycenter that orbits within the Milky Way Galaxy, and the Milky Way also has a barycenter.
Barycenter for the Earth-Moon System https://library.thinkquest.org/29033/begin/earthsunmoon.htm
The solar system is not stationary in the Milky Way galaxy, but there is a point in the solar system that is stationary with respect to the rest of the solar system. That point is the barycenter, which is sometimes located within the Sun’s mass but sometimes drifts above the surface of the Sun. The Solar System Barycenter Video |
||
|
SC.4.1.3 Explain how the Earth’s rotation and revolution about the Sun affect its shape and is related to seasons and tides. |
|
Day & night result from a point on Earth rotating from Sun-facing to other side of Earth as Earth rotates on its axis. The northern hemisphere gets more direct sunlight in summer because it is tilted toward the Sun and sunlight is hitting the Earth from directly overhead during part of the day. Conversely the southern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun so much of the sunlight hits from a low angle from the horizon and glances off the Earth into space. Earth orbits the Sun once every 365.25 days. Regardless of the Sun’s angle, it exerts a gravitational pull on water. However the gravitational pull of the moon is greater because the moon is so much closer to the Earth. This gravitational pull lifts water causing high tides on the sides facing and opposite the moon, and low tides on the other 2 sides of the Earth. As the Earth spins on its axis, the centrifugal force generated at the spinning equator causes a bulge as the molten material of the inner Earth moves outward. This pulls the North and South poles closer together, so the shape of the Earth becomes an “oblate spheroid” or “ellipsoid”. The bulge at the equator is about 26.5 miles so the diameter measured in an equatorial plane is 26.5 miles greater than the diameter in a polar plane. |
||
|
SC.4.1.4 Explain how the Sun produces energy that is transferred to the Earth by radiation. |
|
Atomic number is the number of protons in each atom of a given chemical element. Fission is the splitting of the nucleus of an atom to form at least 2 atomic nuclei with smaller atomic numbers. Conversely, fusion is the joining of 2 or more atoms to form an atom of an element with a higher atomic number. Whereas fission can release an amount of energy we associate with an atomic bomb, the fusion of heavy isotopes (more neutrons) of hydrogen (H) to form the element helium (He) releases vastly more energy because the mass of the He atom is less than the combined masses of the H atoms that fused. The extra matter is converted to energy following Einstein’s E = mc2. This reaction powers the Sun and all stars. Nuclear fusion produces gamma rays, but during the thousands of years it takes that energy to travel from Sun’s interior to its surface it is converted to lower energy forms. That is important for life on Earth. Solar radiation is in the form of X-rays, ultraviolet light (UV), visible light, infrared light (IR) and radio waves. Most of what reaches the Earth’s atmosphere is UV, IR and visible light. Fortunately the ozone layer of the atmosphere filters out much of the UV, which can be very damaging to living cells. There is still enough UV reaching the Earth surface for prolonged exposure to sunlight to cause genetic mutations and skin damage including wrinkles and skin cancer. Cosmic rays, which are actually high-energy particles rather than part of the light spectrum and may or may not originate from the Sun, are also filtered out by the atmosphere.
|
||
|
SC.4.1.5 Explain how incoming solar energy makes life possible on Earth.
|
|
In summer the Earth’s northern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun, and the southern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun. Therefore the angle of incoming radiation is much less in the southern hemisphere so more radiation is reflected into space and the southern hemisphere retains less heat and energy than the northern hemisphere where solar radiation strikes Earth at closer to a 90o angle. Water has a much higher specific heat than almost all of the things on the surface of land, so it is slow to heat and slow to cool. Therefore, the ocean, Great Lakes, and other large bodies of water will retain heat longer and cool more slowly in winter. Likewise, it takes more heat to warm these bodies of water as summer begins. Many other materials, especially metals, will heat and cool much more rapidly. However, heating over ice and snow is very different because of the Albedo Effect. Hence there is much less heating over polar ice and during northern winters. Photosynthesis combines carbon dioxide, water and energy from light in a chemical reaction that produces oxygen and glucose. The equation is 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy à C6H12O6 + 6O2. The six C atoms in the glucose molecule are held together by covalent bonds that store a lot of energy.
|
||
|
|
||||
|
SC.4.2 Earth Systems, Structures and Processes: Explain how processes and forces affect the lithosphere. |
||||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
||
|
SC.4.2.1 Describe Earth and its System Components and Interactions.
|
|
Other than water vapor, Earth’s atmosphere is 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. The other 1% is a mixture of several gases. Most of these gases are in the troposphere, which extends about 5 miles above Earth at the poles and about 10 miles at the equator. Above the troposphere is the stratosphere, which extends to about 28 miles above Earth’s surface and is warmer because it absorbs most of the UV light from the Sun. The mesosphere and thermosphere are above the stratosphere, with the thermosphere extending more than 60 miles above the surface of the Earth. Some of the gases in the atmosphere keep light energy from being reflected back into space, which allows Earth to be warm enough for life. These “greenhouse gases” include carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapor, and methane. Throughout Earth’s history, atmosphere CO2 levels have fluctuated enough to cause major climate changes including ice ages and ice melting leading to much higher ocean levels than exist today. Atmospheric Composition and Recent Changes in CO2 Levels https://www4.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/atmosphere/atmospheric_composition.html Oceans and seas cover 2/3rds of the Earth. If the surface of the Earth was smooth without mountains, valleys, etc. the entire Earth would be covered with water to a depth of 8200 feet. There is significant variation in salt content of seawater, but the average salinity is 35 part per thousand (ppt). The most important dissolved ions are sodium, chloride, magnesium and sulfate. Light does not penetrate very far into ocean water so rooted plants only grow in very shallow areas. Coral reefs are found in shallow water for the same reason as the coral animal is dependent on algae making food by photosynthesis. Sound travels faster and further in seawater than in air. Surface currents are primarily driven by winds and by the Coriolis effect which results from Earth’s rotation. Large scale ocean water flow patterns result from warmer water moving away from the equator (such as in the Gulf Stream along the eastern U.S. coast) and cooler water moving toward it; the resultant large circulation patterns are called gyre. Gyre have major effects on climate and weather thus impacting the location and distribution of biomes and ecosystems. Coastal upwelling brings nutrient rich water up from the deep ocean and creates a very productive area for sea life. National Oceanic and Atmosphere Administration (NOAA) https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/currents/05currents1.html Earth’s rotation sustains 3 prevailing wind patterns on a global scale, with the divisions between these patterns at approximately 30o of latitude. At both poles there are polar easterlies from 0 to 30o. Then there are westerlies from 30o to 60o latitude and easterlies (aka “trade winds”) from 60o to the equator. These prevailing wind patterns contribute to beach erosion, both from wind and from water as waves are blown ashore during storms. Wind is also a significant cause of inland soil erosion in dry areas such as the Great Plains when the soil is not protected by vegetation. Water is a more significant cause of erosion in wetter climates, particularly those with greater slopes. Rock weathering occurs when rocks are blasted by smaller wind-blown particles and when rocks are tumbled by moving water or water seeps into rocks and exerts pressure on outer rock layers when it freezes. The central core of the Earth (inner core) is solid iron and nickel with a temperature greater than 7200oF. It is surrounded by an outer core of the same material that is molten and has a temperature of 6300 to 7200oF. Its depth is 3200 miles; the inner core begins at 3960 miles. Outside the outer core is the lower and upper mantle. The upper mantle begins at a depth of between 3 and 45 miles depending on the topography of the Earth crust. The lower mantle begins at about 1860 miles. The uppermost layers of the mantle are fused to the crust, and together they form the lithosphere. MIT Video |
||
|
SC.4.2.2 Explain how the rock cycle, plate tectonics, volcanoes, and earthquakes impact the lithosphere.
|
|
The basic rock cycle is molten magma to igneous rock to sedimentary rock to metamorphic rock, which will become magma if exposed to high temperature and pressure. Sedimentary rock is formed by compaction and cementation of sediment, regardless of which type of rock was weathered to create the sediment (so there can be diversions across and even backward in the cycle). Sedimentary rock becomes metamorphic rock when it is exposed to sufficient heat and pressure, but heat and pressure can also change igneous rock directly into metamorphic rock. Rocks often weather by shedding layers (similar to layers of an onion); this is called “sheeting” or “foliation”. Exfoliation may be triggered by heat. Chemical weathering occurs when rocks are exposed to corrosive chemicals, most commonly carbonic acid (H2CO3), which is formed by a reaction between water and carbon dioxide, or organic acids secreted from plant roots. A relatively long-standing theory of tectonic plate movement is convection currents in the asthenosphere (molten material underlying the lithosphere), but recent seismic tomography has failed to detect convention cells so that theory is currently being modified. The term “ridge push” is a misnomer because the only pushing force would be gravity as a plate slides downward during subduction or away from a “mantle dome. Another theory relates movements to Earth rotation. Discussion and Animations of Tectonic Plate Movement https://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/geophysics/visualizations/PTMovements.html Three types of boundaries between tectonic plates are divergent, convergent and transform boundaries. Plates spread apart at divergent boundaries where they create features such as the mid-Atlantic trench and the Rift Valley of East Africa. Where plates are moving together one plate slides under the other and has pushed out major mountain ridges including the Appalachian Mountains, Andes, Alps, etc. Many volcanoes are at the Continental-Oceanic Convergences around the Pacific Plate, and this area is called the Ring of Fire. There is sideways sliding against each other at transform boundaries such as the San Andreas Fault in California; that sliding can cause major earthquakes. Both magma and lava are molten rock. Magma identifies underground molten rock (usually fairly deep in the Earth but sometimes in chambers below a volcano). Lava is the name for the molten rock after it is ejected from a volcano. Sometimes lava is so thick it builds in the volcano and causes a massive explosion that throws a lot of dust and ash into the atmosphere. Sometimes a volcano flow is in the form of lahar, which is a hot or cold mixture of water and small rock fragments so it looks like wet concrete and may be referred to as a mudflow. Sometimes the rocks that are carried in a lahar are huge boulders. Discussion and videos can be found at https://www.geo.mtu.edu/volcanoes/hazards/primer/lahar.html Earthquakes are the elastic rebound of rocks that have actually been stretched as Earth plates slide past each other. In the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, the Pacific plate lurched about 15 feet north along the North American plate. The underground point where the earthquake originates is called the focus; the depth of the focus significantly impacts the amount of shaking at ground level. The term epicenter refers to the Earth surface point that is directly above the focus. The violent shaking of an earthquake radiates from the focus like waves generated when an object drops into still water. The 2 kinds of waves generated are S waves (sideways shaking) and P waves (push-pull); they travel at different speeds and seismology uses the difference in time of their arrivals at a given point to locate the earthquake focus and epicenter. Measuring Earthquake Size https://eqseis.geosc.psu.edu/~cammon/HTML/Classes/IntroQuakes/Notes/earthquake_size.html Convergent plates formed the Appalachian mountain 260 mya. When the Permian Extinction of more than 95% of species occurred 252 mya, North Carolina was part of a supercontinent near the equator. North America separated from Africa about 200 mya and as it drifted northwest the Atlantic Ocean formed. The eastern coast of NC has fluctuated dramatically through world climate changes caused by ice ages and periods of warm climates. The coast has moved from the Piedmont to its present location over the past 50 mya. More detail can be found at www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/nchist-twoworlds/1671 During a period when polar ice caps and glaciers melted, the sea level rose more than 300 feet higher than today leaving an escarpment than runs through Scotland, Hoke and Cumberland counties. Approximately 1.7 mya sea level dropped and the present coastal plain was exposed. About 18,000 years ago the sea level dropped so much the Pamlico Sound was exposed. Geologists do not agree on when the outer banks formed but perhaps between 3500 and 5000 years ago; they have moved eastward or westward with sea level changes. |
||
|
SC.4.2.3 Predict the locations of volcanoes, earthquakes, and faults based on information contained in a variety of maps. |
|
Three types of boundaries between tectonic plates are divergent, convergent and transform boundaries. Where plates are moving together one plate slides under the other and has pushed up major mountain ridges including the Appalachian mountains. At the Continental-Oceanic Convergences around the Pacific Plate is a volcanic area called the Ring of Fire. Sideways sliding against each other at transform boundaries can cause major earthquakes.
Types of Faults https://www.livescience.com/37052-types-of-faults.html
Predicting Weather |
||
|
SC.4.2.4 Explain how natural actions such as weathering, erosion (wind, water and gravity), and soil formation affect Earth’s surface.
|
|
Air and water in pore spaces is very important for a soil to be good place for plants to root and grow. Humus (decaying organic material) contributes significantly to soil productivity. The matrix for these materials as well as biotic components of the soil is formed by a mixture of sand, silt, and/or clay. Sand, silt and clay are created by the weathering of rocks. Many rocks were formed underground where conditions are much different than they encounter when they come to the surface. Physical forces that cause rock weathering include wind and water, possibly including objects that they force against the rocks rather violently. Temperature variations cause rocks to expand and contract, which may cause exfoliation of outer layers or create cracks that fill with water. Water expands as it freezes and that can exert tremendous force on a rock. Water can combine with CO2 to form carbonic acid or plant roots can release organic acids, thus causing chemical weathering. Other sources of chemical weathering include acid rain, sea salt, and various chemicals in the soil such as silicates. Some rocks weather more rapidly than others, and climatic conditions such as precipitation, wind and temperature fluctuations affect weathering rate. Topography affects wind exposure, speed of water flow, and susceptibility to mass wasting (such as landslides) which contribute to rock weathering. Erosion by flowing water has destroyed much agriculturally productive soil but has also created some of America’s wonders such as the Grand Canyon. The power of wind erosion is illustrated by the dust bowl conditions of the 1930s in the U.S. and Canadian prairies, and by sandstorms. Glacial erosion is a very powerful force; one of the ice sheets of the last ice age changed the course of the Mississippi River and another created Great Lakes and Niagara Falls. |
||
|
SC.4.2.5 Explain the probability of and preparation for geohazards such as landslides, avalanches, earthquakes and volcanoes in a particular area based on available data. |
|
Much of the U.S. is susceptible to one or more types of geohazards. The potential for property damage is significant in earthquake, tornado, and hurricane-prone areas. Hillsides are susceptible to mass wasting (landslides and mudslides) and construction in forested areas exposures houses and other structures to the risk of forest fire damage. With the projected rise in sea level, coastal areas become increasingly susceptible to storms and flooding, but 40% of Americans live in coastal counties. Location and quality of dwelling structures is important in areas subject to landslides, earthquakes and tsunamis. Levees can protect some flood-prone areas but warning systems for those areas, as well as coastal areas, are also important. People who get their water from private wells need to be informed of any incident of possible groundwater contamination. Some potential damage from sinkholes can be reduced with road and home construction techniques, and maps that show areas where sinkholes are more likely can be made available to potential real estate buyers. |
||
|
|
||||
|
SC.4.3 Earth Systems, Structures and Processes: Understand how human influences impact the lithosphere. |
||||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
||
|
SC.4.3.1 Explain the consequences of human activities on the lithosphere (such as mining, deforestation, agriculture, overgrazing, urbanization, and land use) past and present. |
|
Deforestation is the result of a growing population, which increases the need for home sites, roads, shopping centers and food production. However there are major environmental consequences of urbanization including heat islands, air and water pollution, waste management issues, etc. The loss of species habitats and effects on ecosystems are major concerns, as is the loss of productive farmland, so land use planning has increasing importance. The tidal areas of our coastline need protection because they serve as a nursery for many marine species that are important sources of food and recreation, or part of their food chains and ecosystem balance. However, land use planning often conflicts with desires and rights of property owners.
Significant Issues – Beach Nourishment https://www.csc.noaa.gov/archived/beachnourishment/html/human/dialog/series1a.htm
|
||
|
SC.4.3.2 Compare the various methods humans use to acquire traditional energy sources (such as peat, coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear fission, and wood). |
Compare the methods of obtaining energy resources: Harvesting (peat and wood), mining (coal and uranium/plutonium), drilling (oil and natural gas) and the effect of these activities on the environment.
|
Coal mining helped build the American economy, but at significant cost to human life, human health, and the environment. Exploration and drilling for oil and natural gas has helped our state, national and world economy and helped produce relatively cheap electrical power as well as fuel for motor vehicles, home heating, etc. The potential for environmental disasters with significant consequences for the lives of a large number of people is illustrated by the 2010 BP Gulf oil spill. A discussion of the hidden environmental costs of the use of fossil fuels can be found at https://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/our-energy-choices/coal-and-other-fossil-fuels/the-hidden-cost-of-fossil.html |
||
|
|
||||
|
SC.4.4 Earth Systems, Structures and Processes: Explain the structure and processes within the hydrosphere. |
||||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
||
|
SC.4.4.1 Explain how water is an energy agent (currents and heat transfer). |
|
As seawater cools it becomes more dense and sinks. Water with higher salinity also sinks. Deep water currents are set in motion by the downwelling of dense, cold, salty water in polar and subpolar regions until it reaches a level of equal density where it spreads out, often over long distances. In warmer areas upwelling of less dense water lets it mix with warmer water and be warmed by the Sun as it is transported by surface currents to replace the water that sank in colder areas.
Discussion Video and Activity https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/edu/learning/8_ocean_currents/activities/currents.html
|
||
|
SC.4.4.2 Explain how ground water and surface water interact. |
|
Underground rock areas that collect and conduct water are aquifers. Several large aquifers are the source of drinking water for large regions of the U.S., so it is important that they do not become polluted with dangerous chemicals. The amount of water in an aquifer varies with replenishment from precipitation as water percolates downward through porous soil. A spring is a place where an aquifer intersects with the surface. Groundwater moves upward through soil capillaries as water evaporates from the soil surface and as plant roots provide plants with water for physiological processes. Hence surface water is cycled into groundwater, which is later cycled to surface water. NC Watersheds: https://nc.water.usgs.gov/ When rainfall is unusually high, as in the summer of 2013, percolation of surface water into the soil may be sufficient to saturate the soil so that most of the pores and air spaces are full. Then additional precipitation must simply run off into streams, lakes, etc. Since an inch of rain is more than 17,370,000 gallons per square mile, and since many rivers drain hundreds of square miles, substantial flooding can result from rainfall when groundwater levels are high. |
||
|
|
||||
|
SC.4.5 Earth Systems, Structures and Processes: Evaluate how humans use water. |
||||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
||
|
SC.4.5.1 Evaluate human influences on freshwater availability.
|
|
People use water for transportation, recreation, industry, agriculture and various home uses including drinking, cooking, bathing, flushing toilets, watering plants, car washing, etc. Meeting each person’s food needs for one day requires up to 700 gallons of water and almost 70% of worldwide water use is for irrigation. Another 22% goes for industrial uses and about 8% for household uses. Per Capita Water Use and Water Resource for NC Counties https://nc.water.usgs.gov/infodata/wateruse.html Saltwater intrusion into aquifers contaminates supply wells, and has forced many coastal areas to discontinue use of some of their supply wells over the last 75 years. The major cause of saltwater intrusion into aquifers is groundwater depletion so that saltwater moves underground into the depleted aquifer. Saltwater contamination can also result from hurricane storm surges as well as rising sea levels. Causes and Consequences of Groundwater Depletion https://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/gwdepletion.html Per capita water consumption of North Carolinians averages about 1300 gallons per day, so a population growth of 1000 people increases this state’s water needs by 1,300,000 gallons per day even if we do use more water to achieve a higher standard of living. Storm water runoff is the most common cause of water pollution in NC. When polluted water enters an aquifer, it can spread for miles in all directions. When it enters a stream, large areas downstream and downriver can be subject to contamination by percolation of polluted water into stream and river beds.
Causes and Prevention of North Carolina Watershed Contamination https://srwqis.tamu.edu/north-carolina/program-information/north-carolina-target-themes/pollution-assessment-prevention/ |
||
|
SC.4.5.2 Evaluate human influences on water quality in North Carolina’s river basins, wetlands and tidal environments. |
|
Estuary and Wetland Degradation https://water.epa.gov/type/oceb/nep/challenges.cfm Wastewater treatment plants are designed to remove physical, chemical and biological contaminants. Where plants use advanced technology, it is now possible to reuse sewage effluent as drinking water, and that is done in one country (Singapore). Failure to treat wastewater can lead to algae blooms that kill a lot of marine life. Although the website is designed for children. Treatment of Drinking Water https://water.epa.gov/learn/kids/drinkingwater/watertreatmentplant_index.cfm In its 2010 report, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) identified over 1500 miles of NC rivers and streams with biotic “impairment”. Almost 1000 miles were identified with turbidity, and over 900 miles had fish with mercury contamination. Since mercury is such a dangerous chemical, especially for pregnant women, information on mercury contamination of fish from various bodies of water is maintained by the NC Fish and Game Commission. The EPA report on water quality assessment is at https://ofmpub.epa.gov/waters10/attains_state.control?p_state=NC Non-point source water pollutants include materials from home gardens, lawns and farms such as sediments, fertilizer, pesticides and animal wastes. Since 1942 the U.S. standard for drinking water has been less than 50 ppb of arsenic. Some forms of arsenic are natural to soils everywhere and greater in some areas of the world, but arsenic contamination has been enhanced by coal burning, use of arsenic in gold and lead mining, and the use of arsenic based pesticides as well as industrial chemicals. Discussion and a map of groundwater arsenic pollution in the U.S. can be found at https://nationalatlas.gov/articles/water/a_arsenic.html
|
||
|
SC.4.6 Earth Systems, Structures and Processes: Understand the structure of and processes within our atmosphere. |
||||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
||
|
SC.4.6.1 Summarize the structure and composition of our atmosphere. |
Summarize information from charts and graphs regarding layers of the atmosphere, temperature, chemical composition, and interaction with radiant energy. |
From Earth to space, the atmospheric layers are troposphere (first 11 miles), stratosphere (11 to 47 miles), mesosphere (47 to 80 miles) and thermosphere (80 to over 100 miles). More than 50% of the air molecules of our atmosphere are in the first 6 miles of the troposphere as the air gets progressively thinner with distance above Earth. The air “turns over” in the troposphere and its thickness actually varies by latitude and by seasons. The air gets colder with height in the troposphere, but starts to get warmer again in the stratosphere. Ozone forms in the stratosphere. Because ozone absorbs UV light the temperature increases with height in the stratosphere. UV light absorption is what makes the ozone layer so important to life on earth. Clouds do not go higher than its boundary with the troposphere. Temperatures decline again in the mesosphere and the temperature at the top of the mesosphere is about -90oC (-130oF). Although the temperature in the thermosphere would be measured as hot by many devices, that is an artifact of rapid movement of air molecules because they are spaced so far apart.
Diagram with Animation |
||
|
SC.4.6.2 Explain the formation of typical air masses and the weather systems that result from air mass interactions. |
Note: Also address precautions for severe cyclonic storms to preserve life and property. |
Air Pressure Discussion https://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/%28Gh%29/guides/mtr/fw/prs/def.rxml Air flows away from the center of a high pressure system and toward the center of a low pressure system. In the northern hemisphere, Earth rotation causes clockwise winds around a high-pressure system and counterclockwise around a low-pressure system (such as a tropical depression).
NC Barometric Pressure Readings https://www.usairnet.com/weather/maps/current/north-carolina/barometric-pressure/ Precipitation often develops near frontal boundaries where warmer air rises above colder air. This is illustrated at https://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/%28Gh%29/guides/mtr/cld/dvlp/frnt.rxml When a cold front advances against a retreating warm front, there may be a possibility of severe thunderstorms. Precautions during thunderstorms and other types of storms are discussed at https://www.ready.gov/thunderstorms-lightning |
||
|
SC.4.6.3 Explain how cyclonic storms form based on the interaction of air masses. |
|
Temperature, barometric pressure and relative humidity influence air density, which is the mass of air per unit volume. Other factors being equal, air has a lower density when relative humidity is higher because the molecular mass of water is lower than the molecular mass of dry air. Hurricanes and other cyclonic storms only form over ocean water that is at least 80oF to a depth of at least 50 meters. Hence their early stage is called a tropical storm. They also need wind, which is provided to hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean by the prevailing easterly wind at latitudes within 30o of the equator. Storms |
||
|
SC.4.6.4 Predict the weather using available weather maps and data (including surface, upper atmospheric winds, and satellite imagery).
|
Note: Use predictions to develop plans for safety precautions related to severe weather events. |
You might want to consult a local meteorologist or invite on to speak to the class. However, there is a 6-minute video discussing tools for weather prediction at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dqpFU5SRPgY https://www.intellicast.com/National/Surface/Current.aspx Given a constant barometric pressure, the temperature at which the rate of condensation into liquid water equals the rate of evaporation of liquid water is the dew point. When relative humidity is high, the dew point is fairly close to current temperature, but not so close when relative humidity is low. Relative humidity is the ratio of partial pressure of the water vapor in the air to the saturated vapor pressure at a given temperature. Relative humidity affects evaporation rate of human perspiration so we get uncomfortable when relative humidity is high. As air rises and cools the relative humidity increases and clouds form. If humid air cools at ground level, fog forms. For explanation ideas see https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S8W-xl4mcJ8 |
||
|
SC.4.6.5 Explain how human activities affect air quality. |
|
Water combines with sulfur dioxide to form sulfuric acid, which is a very strong acid. Water reacts with nitrogen oxide to form nitric acid. Two sources of sulfur dioxide are volcanic eruptions and burning of coal and oil. The sulfur content of coal and oil varies considerably, and the burning of high sulfur coal or oil is regulated in the U.S. (so they are sold at lower prices). Acid rain damages vegetation, paint and some building materials, especially limestone. it can also make ponds and lakes acidic harming fish and other aquatic life. See https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have been widely used in aerosol cans, refrigerants (including Freon) and solvents. As CFCs accumulate in the stratosphere, they destroy the ozone layer. Burning of any carbon-based material, including all fossil fuels, releases CO2 and contributes to global warming, Many industrial processes release a multitude of atmospheric pollutants as well as a lot of CO2. Crop and animal production are major contributors to nitrogen oxide and methane in the atmosphere (methane is a greenhouse gas). Vegetation absorbs more heat and takes CO2 out of the air for photosynthesis, so farming practices that reduce vegetative cover contribute to global warming. The most obvious way to help our atmosphere, and the one with potentially the greatest impact, would be to drive less. Reducing your consumption of electrical energy is another big one since much our electricity is from coal-power electrical plants (burning coal releases CO2 and sulfur dioxide). For other ideas see https://www.moretonbay.qld.gov.au/general.aspx?id=2220 |
||
|
|
||||
|
SC.4.7 Earth Systems, Structures and Processes: Analyze patterns of global climate change over time. |
||||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
||
|
SC.4.7.1 Differentiate between weather and climate. |
|
The Köppen Climate Classification System (aka Köppen -Geiger) divides the world’s climatic regions into 5 categories: Tropical/megathermal, Dry, Mild Termperate/mesothermal, Continental/microthermal, and Polar. Each of these is subdivided into different types and many of those types have subtypes, so a 2- to 4-letter identification scheme is used on most maps. An example of a Koppen climate map can be found at https://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/ Weather is relatively short-term, whereas climate refers to longer periods of time. Weather and Climate https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/noaa-n/climate/climate_weather.html |
||
|
SC.4.7.2 Explain changes in global climate due to natural processes.
|
|
Polar ice core samples show major long-term variations in atmospheric CO2 level, and those fluctuations probably caused ice ages and very hot periods. Sunspots can reduce global temperature dramatically. See https://www-das.uwyo.edu/~geerts/cwx/notes/chap02/sunspots.html A significant shift in Earth’s orbit could dramatically affect global climate. Multiple massive volcanic eruptions may have led to at least one ice age as dust, etc. reduce penetration of sunlight. The El Nino-Southern Oscillation affects the surface temperature of the Pacific Ocean and can have major effects on weather in the U.S., the western coast of South America, Australia and New Zealand and can also affect hurricane formation in the Atlantic Ocean. See video at https://www.teachersdomain.org/resource/ess05.sci.ess.watcyc.eselnino/ A “greenhouse gas” is any atmospheric gas that traps heat and solar radiation by keeping it from being emitted back into space after it is reflected from the Earth’s surface. The most important greenhouse gases and the percentages of each in 2011 greenhouse gas emissions are carbon dioxide (84%), methane (9%), and nitrous oxide (5%). Although only 2% of the 2011 greenhouse gas emissions were fluorinated gases, those gases are sometimes referred to as “High global warming potential (GWP) gases.” https://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/gases.html |
||
|
SC.4.7.3 Analyze the impacts that human activities have on global climate change (such as burning hydrocarbons, greenhouse effect, and deforestation). |
|
Plants remove carbon dioxide from the air during photosynthesis, so forests have the potential to maintain lower atmospheric CO2 levels. Deforestation can increase atmospheric CO2 when trees are burned because CO2 is a combustion product as well as by reducing the total biomass doing photosynthesis. Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) were formed over millions of years as plant material partially decayed to form hydrocarbons. Thus the burning of fossil fuels returns large amounts of CO2 to the atmosphere. The result is global warming. Homes, industries, etc. in large cities release a lot of heat from heating, cooking, manufacturing, power generation, air conditioner operation, etc. However, the biggest cause of “urban heat islands (UHI)” is pavement and other reflectors of sunlight. UHIs exist is both summer and winter and may raise the local temperature as much as 7oF at night in the New York City area. Three things that might be good research or discussion topics are reducing automobile use, reducing the use of electrical power, and generating power using alternate energy sources. Since global climate change is a world-wide issue, inspiring changes in all parts of the world should be considered. |
||
|
SC.4.7.4 Attribute changes to Earth’s systems to global climate change (temperature change, changes in pH of ocean, sea level changes, etc.). |
|
Ecosystems with the most obvious risk from global warming are coral reefs and the tundra. The melting of polar ice and glaciers is having dramatic effects on many species, with polar bears getting a lot of media coverage. Since coral reefs are among the world’s most productive biomes, their damage from rising sea levels and increasing ocean temperatures would have significant impacts on other ocean ecosystems. Rising sea levels may also damage estuaries, which are another very productive ecosystem. Less certain, but alarming, are potential effects on amount of precipitation over large areas as habitats may change dramatically with climate changes. As atmospheric CO2 increases, more carbonic acid is formed in ocean water and the water becomes more acidic. This increases the rate of chemical reactions that decrease levels of calcium available to marine life, significantly affecting the formation of calcium-based shells of shellfish. Since shellfish are an important part of many marine food chains, entire ecosystems may be affected. See https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/co2/story/What+is+Ocean+Acidification%3F Global temperature has increased dramatically since 1850 when records were first kept. Evaluation of ice core samples, tree rings, and other natural phenomena show a longer term warming trend. Recently there has been significant melting of polar ice and glaciers (Glacier National Park no longer has glaciers). Since the reflection of solar radiation is so much greater by ice and snow than by earth and water, the reduction of ice and snow coverage leads to more rapid warming, causing more ice melting. Figures are available that show how the Albedo Effect differs for ice, water, forest, soil, pavement, etc. and can be used to supplement this discussion at https://nsidc.org/cryosphere/seaice/processes/albedo.html
Global Warming https://www.climatecentral.org/blogs/131-years-of-global-warming-in-26-seconds/ Historically, the most dramatic effects on sea level resulted from ice ages and from very warm periods in Earth’s history when most of the polar and glacial ice melted. Tectonic plate movements have raised volcanic and other islands and opened deep trenches in the ocean, thus having significant effects on sea level. See https://www.cmar.csiro.au/sealevel/sl_hist_intro.html |
||
|
|
||||
|
SC.4.8 Earth Systems, Structures and Processes: Explain how the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere individually and collectively affect the biosphere. |
||||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
||
|
SC.4.8.1 Describe Interactions between Earth’s Systems and living things. |
|
Carbon, nitrogen, and some other chemical elements are cycled into and back out of the biochemicals of living things. Carbon, and to a lesser extent sulfur, are part of organic chemicals formed from the decay of biochemicals. The formation of fossil fuels from arrested decay of a large quantity of biomass removed a lot of carbon from an ancient hot climate. As humans seek new sources of oil and gas from increasingly inaccessible locations, they not only increase the rate of return of this carbon bank back into the carbon cycle, thus increasing atmospheric CO2, but they increase the risks of accidents that damage large ecosystems.
The Carbon Cycle https://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/carbon/efcarbon.html Earthquakes cause more damage if the soil is wet and stronger earthquakes cause major damage when liquification occurs. Severe shaking can cause the earth to “liquefy” so that above ground structures sink and buried objects float to the surface (including underground gas storage tanks). Hurricane damage along coastal areas is greater when landfall coincides with high tides and potentially will become more severe as sea levels rise. Coastal construction can be designed to withstand wind damage but construction to mitigate damage by a surge of water is more difficult and more expensive. Most students have recently observed the power of a tsunami on TV coverage of the recent tsunami in Japan. How sustainable are various energy sources? The fossil fuels of coal, oil and natural gas on which we currently rely are nonrenewable, and progress in development and adoption of alternative energy sources has been agonizingly slow. The mining of coal from underground mines has been repeatedly proven to be quite dangerous, and strip-mining of coal is very controversial due to its effects on the landscape and environment. Deep-water oil drilling has recently led to a major disaster, as has transportation of crude oil (Exxon Valdese). Current controversies include offshore drilling along the NC coast and the construction of an oil pipeline. It should be noted that the Alaska pipeline that was so controversial several years ago has not been the ecological disaster than many predicted. |
||
|
SC.4.8.2 Explain how abiotic and biotic factors interact to create the various biomes in North Carolina.
|
|
Some biomes (e.g. grasslands) are identified only by predominant type of vegetation, but an important abiotic factor in determining its location is rainfall. Latitude is recognized as a determining factor for biomes in the designation of temperate rainforest and tropical rainforest. Desert is a biome primarily determined by climatic factors and the existence of a permafrost layer is the major determinate of the tundra biome, whether the low temperature results from elevation or latitude. Coral is an animal the builds coral reefs of that biome. Grazing animals interact with climatic factors to determine where the grassland and savanna biomes are located. Students can observe the distribution of biomes on a world map, such as the one shown at https://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/world_biomes.htm to consider possible determining factors. Encyclopedia of Earth describes a very broad definition of biodiversity that includes genetic diversity within species, variety of species, and variety of habitats at https://www.eoearth.org/view/article/150560/ Biodiversity is limited by both biotic and abiotic factors. Water and temperature variations are major determinants of biodiversity in terrestrial environments. Biotic factors include species interactions and the development of sustainable food webs. In any ecosystem food chains begin with the producers (usually plants) that may be limited by the amount of energy available from sunlight for photosynthesis. Hence energy input can be a major limiting factor for biodiversity. A changing environment would have a huge impact. Mountains, marshes, and deep water obviously limit the types of biomes that can exist at those locations. The predominant vegetation of a biome is limited by soil characteristics, but it also is a major builder of that soil. For example, prairie soil is very rich in organic matter that is the result of centuries of grass growth and decay. Desert soil is very fragile and results from the interaction of biotic factors with abiotic limitations, primarily limited rainfall. The biomes of a mountain may vary with elevation. |
||
|
SC.4.8.3 Explain why biodiversity is important to the biosphere. |
|
All living things and their environments. Alternatively, that portion of the Earth’s outer crust, atmosphere and hydrosphere that contains living things, both aquatic and terrestrial. Every ecosystem consists of a multitude of microorganisms, plants, animals and fungi. This diversity of life forms is necessary for stable food webs, recycling of organic matter via decay, and replenishment of nutrients and food sources. For the species that compose an ecosystem to maintain viable populations, each must be able to adapt to environmental changes. Adaptation and evolution are not possible unless a species has adequate genetic diversity to produce more adapted genotypes. A temperate forest biome includes deciduous trees and animals that are adapted to the winter climate. A desert biome includes plants and animals that are able to locate and/or maintain adequate water levels. An ocean biome has photosynthetic plankton and consumers that are adapted to harvesting phytoplankton or species in a plankton-based food chain. The producers in these and other biomes are dependent on nutrients from the waste and decay of consumers. A wide variety of plant species serve as food sources for animals and have been utilized as medications or to meet other human needs. Loss of some species can have devastating effects on an ecosystem by upsetting its ecological balance or can mean the loss of potential life-saving medications.
Biodiversity Report https://www.biodiv.be/biodiversity/about_biodiv/importance-biodiv/ |
||
|
SC.4.8.4 Explain how human activities impact the biosphere. |
|
More people require more homes, roads, shopping centers, recreational facilities, and food. American agriculture has done a great job of producing more food on less farmland, but where is the limit to that efficiency? Here, and especially in developing countries where the population is growing more rapidly, meeting the needs of more people requires more deforestation, thus reducing the habitat for many species (especially in the rainforest). Trees are a buffer against the Greenhouse Effect (and some geohazards such as flooding) so uncontrolled population growth is part of a vicious cycle. More people means more cars and greater electrical power needs, thus increasing carbon dioxide emissions. Meeting the food needs of an increasing population is generally accompanied by more agricultural chemical pollution, as well as more soil erosion (but construction is also a principal cause of soil erosion). Greater food needs encourage mismanagement problems such as overgrazing. Attempts to find new agricultural products have frequently resulted in invasive species, such as kudzu. However, many invasive animal species are the result of importation of exotic animals as pets. An invasive plant may grow and reproduce so well that it becomes a noxious weed, out-competes native plant species, and even kills them. When an introduced animal species out-competes a native species, it may simply replace that species in food chains and food webs, or it may destroy the predator-prey and/or producer-primary consumer balance of an ecosystem. In NC, the grey squirrel has largely replaced the fox squirrel. In south Florida and south Texas, crazy ants are replacing other ant species, and “killer bees” are replacing other bee species. |
||
|
|
||||
|
SC.4.9 Earth Systems, Structures and Processes: Evaluate human behaviors in terms of how likely they are to ensure the ability to live sustainably on Earth. |
||||
|
Objectives |
What Learner Should Know, Understand, and Be Able to Do |
Teaching Notes and Resources |
||
|
SC.4.9.1 Evaluate alternative energy technologies for use in North Carolina. |
Critique the benefits, costs and environmental impact of various alternative sources of energy for North Carolina (solar, wind, biofuels, nuclear fusion, fuel cells, wave power, geothermal). Evaluate which sources of alternative energy may work best in different parts of the state and why. Extension: Examine for region, country, continent, hemisphere, and world. |
Alternate energy sources are renewable and most have fewer pollution problems. Nuclear power plants remain controversial and little progress has been made in the development of nuclear fusion as an energy source. Harvesting of solar and wind power has expensive start-up costs and people do not consider wind farms to be attractive scenery. Ethanol is a renewable energy source and it reduces the amount of carcinogens, such as benzene, released by 80%. In 2006, the inclusion of ethanol in some gasoline reduced CO2 emissions by 8,000,000 tons. Controversy includes using corn for ethanol rather than food, but new cellulosic technology may make it possible for ethanol to be made from stalks and leaves. Scientists are working to overcome the engineering problems that have been experienced with attempts to harvest energy from ocean waves, which would be a good energy source for North Carolina. Energy Sources https://nationalatlas.gov/articles/people/a_energy.html Wind power has the most potential in the NC mountains and along the coast. Obviously, wave power is limited to the coast. It may be counterintuitive, but solar power may be more efficient in colder areas because high temperatures can damage photovoltaic panels. Tidal energy as well as wave energy is most suited to coastal areas of Europe. There are more wind farms in the Great Plains than elsewhere in the U.S. Historically, extensive use of geothermal energy has been limited to areas near tectonic plates. Hydroelectric power requires construction of dams and has been employed more extensively in the mountainous regions of U.S. and other countries. |
||
|
SC.4.9.2 Critique conventional and sustainable agriculture and aquaculture practices in terms of their environmental impacts. |
|
Sustainable agriculture focuses on preserving productive soil and maintaining its ability to hold the right amount of water. It is guided by principles of ecology and environmental protection. Soil fertility is preserved and enhanced by recycling crop waste and using manure rather than chemical fertilizers. Using a crop rotation that includes legumes such as soybeans, alfalfa, clovers and peanuts allows replenishment of soil nitrogen content, as the roots of legumes form a symbiotic relationship with bacteria that convert nitrogen to a form that can be used by all plants (these are called nitrogen-fixing bacteria). Researchers are attempting to genetically engineer non-legume plants that will also form this symbiotic relationship, but the genetic engineering of crop plants is controversial. Adding organic matter (humus) to the soil improves its water holding capability. Practices that reduce water runoff both help preserve water, thus reducing irrigation needs, and reduce soil erosion. Maintaining cover crops to reduce time of exposure of bare soil reduces wind as well as water erosion. https://www.ucsusa.org/food_and_agriculture/solutions/advance-sustainable-agriculture/ |
||
|
SC.4.9.3 Explain the effects of uncontrolled population growth on the Earth’s resources.
|
|
In biology, the carrying capacity of the environment refers to how many members of a species population can be provided with adequate food and habitat. Can technology overcome these limitations for the human population? See https://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/progress/population.html Obviously more people require more building materials for more homes, stores, etc. They also require more food production, more vehicles, more roadways, and more electrical energy. All of these speed the depletion of non-renewable resources. See https://www.ces.ncsu.edu/nreos/ncnatres/ |
||
|
SC.4.9.4 Evaluate the concept of “reduce, reuse, recycle” in terms of impact on natural resources. |
|
https://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/gfn/page/footprint_basics_overview/ Recycling, using public transportation, and carpooling are just a few of many activities that people can employ to reduce their ecological footprints. Students can learn about their own ecological footprint by taking a quiz at https://www.myfootprint.org/ and those who complete this quiz could make valuable contributions to class discussion of this topic. Responsibility, recovery or re-thinking are sometimes added to the R3 list of reduce, reuse, and recycle. Many people thought this initiative was a good idea for others; fewer people made much effort to apply it to themselves. However, improved recycling practices are evolving in many communities and particularly on many college campuses. Data to evaluate effectiveness of these efforts might be collected from recycling reports, but it is harder to analyze how much reduction and reuse has taken place. One source is https://www.bls.gov/opub/btn/volume-2/reduce-reuse-recycle-green-technologies-and-practices-at-work.htm |
||